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July 31, 2013

What is - Asphyxia in Suicide cases & Menthol Cigarette?

Asphyxia or asphyxiation (without heartbeat") is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body that arises from being unable to breathe normally. 
This occurs in suicide cases by hanging and a confirmation in autopsy report tells the case is suicide.

Menthol Cigarette: A menthol cigarette is a cigarette flavored with the compound menthol, a substance which triggers the cold-sensitive nerves in the skin without actually providing a drop in temperature.
Menthol cigarettes have also been shown to inhibit nicotine metabolism, causing "systemic enhancement in exposure to nicotin.

Menthol cigarettes pose a public health risk above that seen with non-menthol cigarettes. Menthol smokers show greater signs of nicotine dependence and are less likely to successfully quit smoking.

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Procedure For Passing Bills in Indian Parliament

Procedure For Passing Ordinary Bills: Any Bill, except a Money Bill, is called an Ordinary Bill. The primary function of the Parliament is law-making. The following procedure is followed for passing an Ordinary Bill.

1. First Reading of the Bill: The first stage of legislation is the introduction of a B ill. It may be introduced either by a Minister or by a private member. If a private member introduces a Bill he must give notice of his intention to the Speaker. If any member opposes the introduction of the Bill, it is decided by the majority of the vote. Every Bill that is adopted in the House has to be published in the Gazette. Usually, at the time of introduction of a Bill there is no debate.

2. Second Reading of the Bill:At this stage the Bill may be
a. taken into consideration, or
b. circulated for the purpose of eliciting public opinion, or
c. it may be referred to a Select Committee of the House,
d. to Joint Committee of both the Houses.
  • Committee Stage: A specially important measure usually goes to a Select Committee or Joint Committee which is expected to give its report within a specified period.
  • Report Stage : After submission of the report by the committee, Members can send in their amendments to the different provisions of the Bill.
  • Each clause is taken up by the House and amendments are moved, discussed and disposed of. 
  • When the clause by clause consideration is over and every clause is voted, the second reading of the Bill is over.
3. Third Reading of the Bill:

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Part6 - Computer Awareness MCQ and Bits for APPSC and BANK PO exams

Q.
A vision statement is .....

1
not required for established companies

2
not required due to competition

3
not required as no one understands them

4
a long term inspiration


Ans: 4

Q.
Non-product selling means .....

1
selling variety of products

2
selling only one product

3
selling seasonal products

4
selling services


Ans: 4

Q.
Marketing is a function undertaken by ......

1
All DSA's

2
All front-office staff

3
Whole organization

4
All of these


Ans: 4

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July 30, 2013

MID DAY MEAL SCHEME IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Introduction:
The   Government   of   Andhra   Pradesh   introduced   the   Mid   Day   Meal Programme in 1982 experimentally in all the Abhyudaya Pradhamika Patasalalu (Model  Schools). Due  to  certain  constraints  like  inadequate  finances,  this programme could not be sustained.
•    Government of India launched the Scheme again in January, 2003 for the children studying in Primary Schools (Classes I to V)
•    Extended to the children studying in Upper Primary Schools (Classes VI to VIII) in October, 2008
•    Extended to the children studying in High Schools (Classes IX & X) also in October, 2008 with 100% state funds
•    Further extended to the children studying in Special Schools under NCLP from the academic year of 2010-11

OBJECTIVES
  • To avoid classroom hunger
  • To increase school enrolment
  • To increase school attendance
  • To reduce gender gap
  •  To foster social equality
  •  To address malnutrition
  • To promote community participation
  • Women empowerment

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July 29, 2013

Antyodaya Anna Yojana scheme in Andhra Pradesh

Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) is for poorest families. Launched by NDA government in December 2000.
Objective: Food Security

Beneficiaries: look out for the 'poorest of the poor'
  • Allocation of foodgrains (rice & wheat) to these AAY families is made @ 35 kg per family per month at a highly subsidized Central Issue Price (CIP) of Rs.2 per kg for wheat and Rs.3 per kg for rice.
  • The scale of issue that was initially 25 kg per family per month has been increased to 35 kg per family per month with effect from 1st April, 2002.
  • On whole India there are 2.43 crore Antyodaya Anna Yojna beneficiary households will continue to get their quota of 35 kg grains a month under the TPDS.
  • Coverage under this scheme has been expanded thrice since then i.e. during 2003-04, 2004-05 and 2005-06 covering additional 50 lakh households each time
  • Thus the total coverage under AAY was raised to 2.50 crore AAY families. The identification of AAY families within the target of AAY families allocated to each State/UT is the responsibility of concerned State/UT Government.
  • Upto March, 2013, they have reported issuance of AAY ration cards to 2.43 crore AAY families

Eligibility criteria for AAY :

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Quiz-8- General Studies-MCQs Bits Bank PO Study Material

1.  Which or ganization is responsible for empowering Micro, Small and Medium enterprises in India?
1) RBI 2) NABARD
3) SIDBI        4) SEBI 5) EXIM Bank
 2. Muhammad Yunus is associated with which of the following concepts in the field of Banking?
1) Retail banking
2) Internet banking
3) Micro credit
4) CBS 5) RTGS

3. Which country won the 34th edition of the Men's Hockey Champions Trophy in Melbourne in December 2012?
1) Australia     2) Netherlands 3) Pakistan      4) India
5) Germany

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MERS Virus - The new deadly virus of International Concern!

Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) - the mysterious new virus killing people in the Middle East and Europe. MERS-CoV was first reported in Saudi Arabia in September 2012 and since then, cases were reported from countries such as U.K., Jordan, France, and Tunisia.

It first surfaced last year as "human betacoronavirus 2c EMC", but the suffixes "2c England-Qatar, "2C Jordan-N3", "England 1" have also appeared and many scientists have resorted to "novel coronavirus" - new crown-shaped virus - instead.

The infection has now emerged as a serious cause for concern, especially in India, as thousands are set to travel to Saudi Arabia in the coming days for Umrah and Haj. Emerging evidence suggests Saudi Arabia as the apparent geographic hub of the novel corona virus.

Spread methods:

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India Partners in prestigious TMT Telescope

Thirty Metre Telescope(TMT)
India time, the Master Partnership Agreement (MPA) for the construction of the $1.5-billion Thirty Metre Telescope (TMT), what would be the world’s largest optical and infrared telescope, was signed by the five partner countries —
  1.  Canada,
  2. China,
  3. India,
  4. Japan and
  5. the U.S.

At — in Hawai. The telescope will be located just below the summit at Mauna Kea at a height of 4,050 m. The construction is expected to begin next year and the telescope is expected to become operational in 2022. Its large collecting area makes it 81 times more sensitive (measure of the faintest signal that it can detect) than the current largest ground-based telescopes.
‘India designing mirror coating system’ for TMT.
At present, India has three 2 m class optical-IR telescopes and a 3.6 m telescope waiting to be commissioned.

Some important Physics Institutes and places important in civil services view point:

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July 26, 2013

Quiz 9- General Studies Questions useful for APPSC & Bank PO Exams

1.M.S.Raghavan took chaige as the Chairman and Managing Dire¬ctor of which of the following public sector banks in July 2013?
1)            Oriental Bank of Commerce
2)            Canara bank 3) Andhra Bank
4)            Indian Bank 5) IDBI Bank

2.Andy Murray became the first British man to win the Wimbledon singles title since 1936. Whom did he defeat in the final on July 7th 2013?
1)            Juan Martin del Fotro (Argentina)
2)            Novak Djokovic (Serbia)
3)            Jerzy Janowicz (Poland)
4)            Roger Federer (Switzerland)
5)            Rafael Nadal (Spain)

3.Who is the 2013 Wimbledon women's singles champion? (This is her first Grand Slam title)
1)            Sabine Lisicki (Germany)
2)            Agnieszka Radwanska (Poland)
3)            Marion Bartoli (France)
4)            Kirsten Flipkens (Belgium)
5)            Serena Williams (DSA)

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July 25, 2013

Question Hour in Indian Parliament

  • The first hour of every sitting of Lok Sabha is called the Question hour. 
  • Asking of questions in Parliament is the free and unfettered right of members.
  • It is during the Question hour that they may ask questions on different aspects of administration and Government policy in the national as well as international spheres. 
  • Every Minister whose turn it is to answer to questions has to stand up and answer for his Ministry's acts of omission or commission. 
Questions are of three types -

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Observers (Engineering) in AP Research Labs (Exam Held on 23-06-2013) - General Studies Papers Solved APPSC

Observers (Engineering) in AP Research Labs (Exam Held on 23-06-2013) - General Studies Papers Solved
Observers (Engineering) in AP Research Labs (Exam Held on 23-06-2013) - General Studies Papers Solved

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July 23, 2013

Rise and Fall of Maratha Empire

Maratha Kingdom: In 18th century, Maratha kingdom was the most powerful one in India. But they were divided into many different states under different chiefs. The most important dynasties were :
  • Gaekwad of Baroda
  • Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur,
  • Malhar Rao Holkar of Indore and
  • Ranaji Scindia of Gwalior.

Peshwa Baji Rao organized them into one union known as the confederacy and allowed them to levy the taxes and to enjoy the maximum autonomy. But they had to pay the share of the state income and work under the Peshwa and are also required to join the Peshwa in military campaign against the common enemy.

After the death of Peshwa Baji Rao in 1740 A.D., his son, Balaji Baji Rao became the Peshwa. He was just 18 years old at that time. He also followed the footsteps of his father and extended the Empire further in all the directions. During his reign, Maratha's glory and prestige reached its heights.

Rise of Marathas:

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July 22, 2013

APPSC Latest news on Group 1 Group 2 Notification 2014 - News Dated: 22 July 2013





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Group 1, Group 2 Notifications to be issued in August?

APPSC Notifications for Various Government Jobs to be issued in August
(latest News on APPSC Group 1 Notification)
Election code of Panchayat elections is going to be ended on July 31.  APPSC is planning to issue notifications for the vacancies available after July 31.  There is also chance that Group 1 and Group 2 exam notifications will also be issued for limited number of vacancies before Municipal elections notifications in AP is issued.

APPSC is making all arrangements to issue notifications for recruitment of various posts in government departments in August this year.  Finance department has already given approval for filling of twelve thousand posts and notifications for these posts is expected to be issued in August.  APPSC scheduled to release notifications various posts by the end of this month but in the wake of implementation of election code of Panchayat elections, notifications were not released.

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July 21, 2013

Pioglitazone - Why it is banned in India 2013???

Pioglitazone — an oral anti-diabetic drug which was banned on June 18 2013
Why is it banned?
The Ministry banned piogiltazone based on a letter sent in January to the Drug Control General of India (DCGI) by the Chennai-based diabetologist Dr. V. Mohan, chairman of Dr. Mohan’s Diabetes Specialities Centre. His letter was based on his observation of eight bladder cancer cases in patients taking the drug. 
The ministry and Drugs Controller General of India certainly have the power to ban any drug under Section 26-A of the Drugs & Cosmetic Act if they are satisfied that the use of any drug is likely to involve risk to human beings or that drug does not have the therapeutic value claimed for it or contains ingredients in such a quantity for which there is no therapeutic rationale.
The drug has been banned in Germany and France, but other countries in Europe and the US sell the drug with a risk warning. In India, the drug has been in the market for over a decade and had no reports of adverse drug reactions reported. Diabetologists from the government and corporate hospitals are of the view that pioglitazone is a safe drug for type II diabetes and it also reduces triglycerides and increase HDL levels in patients.
At present, doctors report side-effects to companies, who in turn submit the reports to the drug regulator. But this does not show the entire picture, as there could be under-reporting, or there may not be details of where the incident occurred.

Though 35 lakh patients are estimated to be on pioglitazone, there is little locally generated data to swing the debate for or against its use. A good fall-out though, is that doctors across the country are awakened to the reality of drugs, their side-effects and the need for surveillance, says a local doctor.

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Impact on pending Bills and Rajya Sabha - on Dissolution of Lok Sabha

On dissolution of Loksabha
  • Bills originating in Rajya Sabha which are still pending in that House do not lapse.
  • Bills originating in Rajya Sabha which having been passed by the House and send to Lok Sabha and pending there lapse on the dissolution of Lok Sabha. i.e Bill becomes invalid.
  • Bills originating in Lok Sabha which having been passed by that House and transmitted to Rajya Sabha and still pending there on the date of dissolution of Lok Sabha, lapse.
  • Bills originating in Rajya Sabha and returned to that House by Lok Sabha with amendments and still pending there on the date of its dissolution, lapse.
  • A Bill upon which the Houses have disagreed and the President has notified his intention to summon a Joint Sitting of the Houses to consider the Bill prior to dissolution does not lapse on dissolution.

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Committees of Rajya Sabha

Parliamentary Committees of the Rajya Sabha may be categorized as ad hoc Committees and Standing Committees.

Ad hoc Committees are those Committees which may be constituted by the House or by the Chairman or by the Presiding Officers of both Houses jointly to consider and report on specific matters. Such Committees become functus officio(having discharged an office i.e. they expire) as soon as they complete their work. 
These Committees may be divided into two categories:

  • Select/Joint Committees on Bills constituted by the House(s) on specific motion to consider and report on Bills; and
  • Committees which are constituted from time to time to enquire into and report on specific subjects.
Standing Committees are permanent Committees of Rajya Sabha.

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ELEMENTS OF WEATHER

 Temperature is  defined as the degree of hotness of air at a particular place. Generally the Maximum and the Minimum Temperature of a place is noted.
  • Highest temperature noted during a day is called Maximum Temperature while lowest temperature noted during a day is called Minimum Temperature. The average of daily Maximum and Minimum temperature is called the Daily Mean Temperature.
  • For finding out the maximum and the minimum temperature of air the weather instrument that is used is called Six's Thermometer. Temperature is measured in degrees of Celsius or Fahrenheit.
Air Pressure: The air pressure or atmospheric pressure is the weight of the vertical column of the air at a particular place.
  •  It is measured by  Aneroid Barometer and the units -Millibars.
  • Tempertaure is inversely proportional to Pressure.
Precipitation:

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ANNAPURNA SCHEME of Andhra Pradesh

Objective :  Food Security

Senior citizens of 65 years of age or above who though eligible for old age pension under the National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS) but are not getting the pension, are covered and 10 kgs. of food grains per person per month are supplied free of cost under the scheme.

Annapurna Scheme” is being implemented since May 2000 in Andhra Pradesh.
  • A quantity of 10 Kgs. of food grains (rice) is provided per month free of cost to the beneficiaries covered under the scheme.
  • The beneficiaries were identified during Grama Sabha
  • Male or female should be 65years or above.
  • The applicant should be a “destitute” in the sense of having little or no regular means of subsistence from his/her own source of income or through financial support from family members or other sources.
  • Funds are currently released to the State Departments of Food & Civil Supplies (F&CS;) in one instalment This Department then ties up with the Food Corporation of India (FCI), to release foodgrains districtwise on payment of the cost of Foodgrains at CIP rates directly to the FCI offices.

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Part 5-Computer Awareness - MCQ and Bits for APPSC and BANK PO exams

 1. A (n) program is one that is ready to run and does not need to be altered in any way.
1)            Interpreter   2) High-level           
3)            Compiler     4) COBOL 5) Executable
2. Which of the following is true about URL?
1)            It is a computer program
2)            It is a type of Programming object
3)            It is the address of a document or page on the World Wide Web
4)            It is an acronym for Unlimited Resources for Listening
5)            It is a piece of hardware
3. Universal Product Code (UPC) is a _
 1) Scanner 2) Hardware Equipment
3) Antivirus 4) Graphics Adapter 5) Barcode system

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July 20, 2013

Conditions in Andhra before Satavahanas

Aryanization of the Andhra Country and its Conditions in the Pre-Mauryan and Mauryan Periods:
Prior  to  satavahanas,   during the  6th  and  5th  centuries  B.C.,  northern  India  was  under  the settled  government  of  the  Sisunaga  and  Haryanka  rulers- The two  famous  reformist  faiths.  Buddhism   and  Jainism  came  to be founded   during  the  same  period. 
 In   Andhra,  the  Nagas who  were  of  a  non-Aryan  stock  were  having   their republican  states.    Some  other  semi-civilised   races   also  in- habited  the  thick  jungle  regions  to the  south  of the  Vindhyas, known  for  a  long  time  as  Dandakaranya.    It was  during  this period  that  the  Aryans  from  the  north  were  penetrating  into this Dandaka area. The  coming  of the Aryans  into Deccan  was peaceful.  The progress    of  the   'Aryanisation'  is    reflected  in   literature  and legend.   
 It  seems  the Vedic   Rishis,   in  quest  of  peace   and  loneliness,  ventured  to enter Dandaka  forest  to  establish  hermitages  on the  banks of rivers  in  the  thick  of  the  forests.    The  local  inhabitants  who were   described   by   the   Aryans  as 'Asuras  and Rakshasas' might have  raided  their  settlements,  destroying  their  sacrifices and interrupting  their penance.   The  memory  of these  episodes is  preserved  in  tradition  regarding  the  advent  of Agastya  into the  South.    The  Ramayana  when  purged of all exaggerations, interpolations  and  anachronisms,   proves  the  central  fact  that Rama  championed  the  cause  of  Aryan  culture fighting  against the  Asuras,  thus  giving  an  impetus   to  the  spread  of  Aryan ideals  and  institutions  in  the  Deccan.

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APPSC Group 1 Syllabus in Telugu Medium 2013 Language

You can download Appsc group 1 syllabus telugu 2013 in pdf format from below. This blog also has much Group 1 Mains material which are divided under Paper wise for the users. Any doubts regarding books for Group 1 Mains can be cleared if the questions are posted in the comments section below.



>>Direct Download PDF Link Here: Download <<<

Group 1 is the highest cadre recruited by APPSC.
  1. The various posts which come under APPSC Group 1, their pay scale, reservation details and education qualification required for various posts under Group 1 should be read if aspirant is just beginner in preparation to the exam. (Various Posts, Eligibility & Pay scale to different Group 1 Cadre Posts)
  2. This exam is a three stage exams( Download Pattern and Syllabus of Group 1 from here).
  3. Dont ignore the reference books to be read for APPSC Group 1, leaving it will end you no where.Reference books for APPSC Group 1 Exams)
  4. Students often ask about of Group 1 prelims, as clearing prelims is important stage, aspirants should know cutoff's of various years Group 1 (APPSC Group 1 Exam Cutoff Marks Analysis)
  5. Many students often confuse in which language to be written in Mains exam, if you are in such dilemma you should definitely read (In which language APPSC Group 1 Mains can be written?)
  6. You Might be questioning yourself as how much score will be needed to successfully cross the mains stage and appear for Group 1 Mains Interview. (Group 1 Mains Marks Analysis!)

Aspirants often confuse with a question- How should I start my preparation for Group 1???

Group 2 is the second highest cadre. Its a two stage exam for Executive Posts & One stage Exam for Non -Executive Posts. 


Last but not least, Some important preparation tips which aspirants should keep in mind while preparing for civil service exams.

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July 19, 2013

500+ Chemistry- Bits Material in Telugu Medium(Part-5)

Chemistry- Bits useful fro APPSC TSPSC Group 1 Group 2 Exams 
Keywords: group 2 telugu medium material, appsc material, telugu study material,  appsc material download  Appsc group 1 prelims material, appsc group 1 prelims telugu material download, appsc group 4 telugu medium material

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500+ Physics- Bits Material in Telugu Medium for APPSC (Part 4)

Physics- Bits Material in Telugu Medium useful fro APPSC Group 1 Group 2 Exams
Keywords: group 2 telugu medium material, appsc material, telugu study material,  appsc material download  appsc group 1 prelims material, appsc group 1 prelims telugu material download, appsc group 4 telugu medium material.

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700+ Biology - Bits Material in Telugu Medium

APPSC Notification, APPSC Material, APPSC TSPSC Group 1 Notification 2014, APPSC Group 2 Notification 2014, APPSC General Studies Material, APPSC Group 1 Mains Material, Appsc material in Telugu Medium, Appsc material in Telugu, Appsc material in Telugu Medium, Biology - Bits Material in Telugu Medium useful fro APPSC Group 1 Group 2 Exams.

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July 18, 2013

National Anaemia Prevention Programme 2013 in India

Other name: Weekly Iron Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) Programme.
Launch Date:  17/07/2013 by Union Government in Karanataka.
Objective: The scheme aimed at reducing the prevalence and severity of anaemia among the adolescent population.
Need of the programme:
  • The Union government’s initiative to control anaemia comes in with the report of National Health and Family Welfare Survey III and the National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau study which has reported the  prevalence of anaemia among adolescents with a haemoglobin value of  under 12 grams percentage in girls and haemoglobin value of under 13 grams percentage in boys. Anaemia is seen a serious public issue as around 74 per cent of the population have their haemoglobin level less than the normal level.
  • It is estimated that over 56 per cent of the adolescent girls and 30 per cent of the boys in the same age group of 10 to 19 years are anaemic in India.
  • Almost 50 per cent of nutritional deficiency-related anaemia is Iron Deficiency Anaemia which is a result of under-nutrition and poor dietary intake of iron
Impact of Anaemia:

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July 17, 2013

Planet Neptune - know its facts

Neptune — the blue coloured eighth planet of the solar system, will this year complete its first revolution (in 2011) of the sun since its discovery in 1846.
Neptune has 14 satellites, and a thin ring system that was discovered in 1984. The planet’s orbit is nearly circular.
It’s atmosphere is dominantly hydrogen (80 per cent), with helium (19 per cent) and methane (1 per cent), and a very small admixture of other compounds. 
The average temperature is — 235degrees C. It is 38.87 times bigger and 17.132 times more massive than the Earth.
Neptune is also the first planet found by mathematical prediction rather than by observation. Unexplained deviations in the orbit of the planet Uranus, ever since its accidental discovery on March 13, 1781 by William Herschel, led astronomers to believe that there was some unknown body farther out.

The planet was discovered on September 23, 1846 by Johann Galle and Heinrich d’Arrest from Berlin Observatory very near the predicted position.

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Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE) Mission -Discovers melting of Snow Glaciers

The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE), a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center, has been making detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field since its launch in March 2002.
Gravity is determined by mass. By measuring gravity, GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate.
Scientists have warned that the measurements gathered since 2002 by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (Grace) flying in space are still too short—term for accurate predictions of how much ice will be lost in the coming decades, and therefore how rapidly sea levels will rise.
The ice sheets covering Antarctica and Greenland contain about 99.5 per cent of the Earth’s glacier ice which would raise global sea level by some 63m if it were to melt completely.
A rapid acceleration in the melting of Antarctic and Greenland glacier ice, amounting to around 300 billion tonnes a year, has been detected by a satellite over the past decade.

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What is oxilofrine? - Which was tested positive for doping!

Tyson Gay and Asafa Powell, the two fastest sprinters in the world this year, have both tested positive for the banned amphetamine oxilofrine. 
What is oxilofrine?
Oxilofrine is a stimulant drug of the amphetamine class that was developed and used to treat hypotension (low blood pressure) in people who do not respond to conventional treatment. Oxilofrine is the prescription name for methylsynephrine, hydroxyephrine, and oxyephrine. It is not widely used in the UK and is not a licensed drug in the US. Some companies use oxilofrine, in the form of synephrine, in “sports nutritional supplements” as it is thought to allow people to enhance fat-burning and lose weight. Synephrine is present as a natural component of Citrus aurantium, otherwise known as “bitter orange”, but it can also be synthesised artificially or extracted from plant sources and purified.
What are its effects?
Oxilofrine is thought to give a sporting edge by increasing the production of adrenaline, so boosting exercise endurance, focus, alertness and heart rate, and increasing oxygenation of the blood.
Is it dangerous?

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Overview of APPSC Group 1 Exam in Telugu Language

Overview of APPSC Group 1 Exam in Telugu Language

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Astronomers discover 14th new moon of Neptune

The Hubble space telescope has found a new moon orbiting Neptune, the 14th known to be circling the blue-green planet.
The new moon, Neptune’s tiniest at just 19.3 km across, is designated S/2004 N 1 is located between Larissa and Proteus. It orbits Neptune in 23 hours.
It even escaped detection by NASA’s Voyager 2 spacecraft, which flew past Neptune in 1989 and surveyed the planet’s system of moons and rings.

Neptune's largest moon, Triton, was discovered in 1846, just days after the planet itself was found. Nereid, Neptune's third largest moon was found in 1949.
Astronomers discover 14th new moon of Neptune

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July 16, 2013

Early Andhra History-Sources of History of Andhras till 1565 AD

It  is  a  fact  that  we  have  no ancient  or  medieval  literature  created  in  Andhra  which  can be classified  as truly  historical.   So  it is  but natural  one  has to  depend  heavily  on  'Primary  source  material  of  incidental nature,  created    not  for   the  purpose    of  communicating  the history  of  contemporary  times  chronologically  set  forth,   but to record events and impressions for political, legal and religious purposes  like  the  epigraphs  of  medieval  times,  the  quasi- historical  literary  works and  so forth'.
Just like ancient Indian history, the history of the Andhras is  still  in  the  formative  stage.    Though  the  available  source material is vast, it is incomplete and at the same time diverse in  nature  and variety.    In the  last 70  years,  yeomen  service was rendered by eminent scholars and organisations in recovering  the records  of the  past with  sustained effort  and  in  reconstructing  the  history  of  the Andhras  with  judicious  nature. Of course, the work  is still  going on.
The source material for the writing of ancient and medieval Andhra history can conveniently be classified under
 (i)  archaeology  including  epigraphs  and  numismatics  apart  from  monuments  and  other  ancient  relics, 
(ii)  literature,   native  as  well as foreign,  and 
(iii)  foreign  notices.

 ARCHAEOLOGICAL  SOURCES.

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Understanding Some Important Terms while preparing for Indian Constitution

Majority: Majority means one (or more) over half. Example:If there are 20 representatives, then 11 or more must agree in order to pass a law. The larger group of politicians is known as majority. The smaller group is known as minority. In a two-third majority, if there are 300 members then 200 and not 151 would be considered.

Resolution: Majority of the House expressing its opinion on a matter of public interest.

Dissolution: "Dissolution" means the end of the life of the House itself and calls for a fresh election.
"Prorogation" means termination of a session.

"Adjournment" postpones the further transaction of business for a few hours, days, or weeks.

Recess: The period between the prorogation of Parliament and its reassembly in a new session is termed "recess".

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Quantitative Aptitude for UPSC CSAT, Bank PO, SSC CGL Exams

Mastering quantitative aptitude is important task and this topic in various competitive exams like APPSC and Bank PO Exams is given more weightage, so it needs a focused strategy. 
  • As much as candidate practice; his/her speed, accuracy and time limit to solve a particular  section will increase day by day.
  • The right understanding of the problem can  help the aspirants to sail through this section. 
This topic is useful for quantitative aptitude for competitive examinations, quantitative aptitude questions, quantitative aptitude for cat, quantitative aptitude r s agarwal, aptitude question and answers, aptitude shortcuts, aptitude test formulae's, bank po aptitude questions, bank po material pdf, bank po material download, bank po study material, bank po ebooks, bank po math questions tricks shortcuts solved papers

 Study Materials for  APPSC and  Bank Clerical, Bank PO, SSC Exams : Topics Arithmetic/Numerical Ability Consist of 
Aptitude

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Computer Awareness for APPSC and Bank PO Exams - Part 3

1.The p art o f a computer that coordinates all its functions is called      
a)            ROM program
b)            System Board
c)            Arithmetic logic unit
d)            Control unit e) None
2.A computer cannot boot if it does not have the            
a)            Compiler b) Loader
c)            Operating System
d)            Assembler e) None
3.Any data or instructions entered into the memory of a computer are considered        
a)            Storage                b) Output
c)            Input     d) Information
e)            None of these
4.A right click on the desktop itself will?
a)            Open the display properties dialogue box

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Computer Basics - must read for beginners - helpful for APPSC and Bank PO Exams

INTRODUCTION

Definition : A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve Mathematical, Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of devices that function together as a system.

It performs the following three operations in sequence.

 

1.   It receives data & instructions from the input device.

 

2.   Processes the data as per instructions.

 

3.   Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

 

Data :  It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.

 

Ex :  Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random order.

 

Information :  It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.

 

Ex : When the names of students are arranged  in alphabetical order, total and average marks are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information.

Program Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.

 

Advantages of computers :

 

1.   High speed : Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.

2.   Accuracy : Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.

 

3.   Storage : Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.

4.   Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically ( which increases the productivity).

5.   Diligence : Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy without getting tired.

6.   Versatility : Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.

 

7.   Cost effectiveness : Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing costs.

Limitations of computers :

1.   Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result.

 

2.   Computers cannot think.

 

3.   Computers cannot learn by experience.

 

Generations of computers :

Generation

Component used

First Generation

(1946-1954 )

Vacuum tubes

Second Generation

(1955-1965)

Transistors

Third Generation

(1968-1975 )

Integrated Circuits (IC)

Fourth Generation

( 1976-1980)

Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits

(VLSI)

Fifth Generation

(1980 till today )

Ultra Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI)

Micro  Processor (SILICON CHIP)

ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS

 

The computer system consists of three units:

 

1.   Input device    2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)                   3. Output device

 

 

   Unit                                                Function

1.Input  device                               :    Reads information from input media and enters to the computer in a coded form

 

2.CPU

 

(a) Memory unit                          :    Stores program and data

 

(b) Arithmetic Logic unit            :    Performs arithmetic and logical functions

 

(c) Control Unit                           :    Interprets prograinstructions and controls the input and output devices

3. Output device                           :    decodes information and presents it to the user

 

 Central Processing Unit: It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is known as the

brain‖ of the computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 

and control unit.

 

 (a). Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data, program instructions, internal   results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an appropriate output device. It  consists of  thousands of cells called storage locations‖.   These cells activate with off-on‖ or binary digits(0,1) mechanism.  Thus a character either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a string of (0,1) Binary digits ( BITS).  These bits are used to store instructions and data by their combinations.

 (b)  Arithmetic and Logical Unit(ALU) It is the unit where all   Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female are performed.  Once data are fed into the main memory from input devices, they are held and transferred as needed to ALU where

processing takes place.  No process occurs in primary storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU are temporarily placed in memory until needed at later time. Data may move from primary memory to

 

ALU and  back again to storage many times before the process is finalized.

  (c).Control Unit  :     It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is stored correctly and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are selected from the memory as necessary.  It also coordinates all the input and output devices of a system .

Input Devices

 

Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input devices. Some important input devices are

Key board,  MouseScanner,  MICR,  Web camera,  Microphone etc.

 

1.   Keyboard: The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as standard Input device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with additional keys. The most commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.

 

There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as :

 

·    Alphanumeric keys , including letters & numbers.

 

·    Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single & double quotes

 

·    Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME, END etc.

 

2 Mouse:    It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have 2 buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a wheel between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through screens of information. As we move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction. Optical mouse is another advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead of the mouse ball. Mouse cannot be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select the options on the screen.

3. Scanner:It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered separately

resulting in saving lot of time.

 

Scanners are of two types: i) optical scanners      ii) MICR

 

i)  Optical scanners:

 

a. Optical character Recognition(OCR): In this, characters are read with the help of a light. This is used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.

b. Optical mark recognition(OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such as aptitude tests.

c. Optical barcode recognition(OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is used in super markets, book shops etc.

ii. MICR: This is widely used in banks to process the cheques. This allows the computer to recognize characters printed using magnetic ink.

4. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR):   : It is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of the cheques. MICR characters ( cheque No., Acc.No.etc) are printed  in  special  ink  usually containing  iron  oxide. When  a document  that contains the ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine which magnetizes the ink and there will be a reader sorter unit which translates the magnetic information into characters. MICR provides a secure, high speed of scanning and processing information. It scans about 2600 cheques/min.

 

Output devices

 

 

Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an Output device. Output devices receive information from the CPU and  present it to the user in the desired form.

 

Some important Output devices are : Monitor,  Printer

 

 1 .Terminal/Monitor: It is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour and it displays the output.  It is also referred as Visual  Display Unit(VDU).  Several types of monitors are in use.  Some of them are Colour Graphic  Adapter(CGA),  Enhanced Graphics Adaptor(EGA) , Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics  Adapter (SVGA).

The screen sizes differ from system to system.  The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters. Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text vertically or horizontally on the screen.

2 . Printer: A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy obtained

 

from a printer is often referred as ―printout‖.  The different printers and their speeds are as follows:

 

S. No.

Type

Mode of Printing

Speed

1

Dot – Matrix

 

printer

Prints the character in dotted pattern

 

through printer ribbon using either 24 pin or 9 pin

200/300 to 700

 

CPS

2

Ink Jet printer

Work by spraying ionized ink

Slow, 90 CPS

3

Laser printer

Also called page printer. Uses laser

 

beam to produce an image.

6 to 12 PPM

4

Line printer

Prints lines at a time instead of single

 

characters.

300 to 600 LPM

5

Plotter

Produces drawings or graphs through

 

pens which are filled with different colours.

 

( CPS: Characters Per Second;   PPM: Pages Per Minutes;   LPM : Lines Per Minute)

MEMORY OF THE COMPUTER

 

Memory or  storage capacity is one of the important components of a computer.  Any storage unit of a computer system is classified on the basis of the following criteria:

 

1.  Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve stored data from the storage unit in response to program instructions.

 

2.  Storage capacity: It is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

 

3.   Cost per bit of storage.

 

Units of memory: The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary (0,1) mechanism. Thus the basic unit of memory is  a  bit (binary digit 0,1).  To store a character, a computer requires 8 bits or 1 byte.   This  is called the  word length‖ of the storage unit.  Hence the storage capacity of the computer is measured in the number of words it can store and is expressed in terms of bytes.   The different units of measurement are

 

8 Bits               =      1 Byte

 

210  (or) 1024  Bytes   = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)

 

210  (or)1024 KB         = 1 Mega Byte (MB)

 

210  (or)1024 MB        = 1 Gega Byte (GB) Conversion :

ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange.This code has given alphabets like some numbers which can be converted to Binary form. A- 65 …….Z – 90     and    a – 97  ………. z – 121

By using these codes the alphabets can be converted to digital  & hence to Binary form.

 

Types of Memory : A computer memory is of two types

 

1. Primary Memory ( Internal storage)        2. Secondary Memory ( External storage)

 

Primary Memory :   Primary memory is also called internal memory and is an important part of a computer. It is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. The stored data can be recalled instantly and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU for reading or storing information. Primary memory is further classified into two types:

 Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read- Only Memory (ROM ) RAM:

RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written onto it. RAM is a place in a computer that holds instructions for the computer, its programs and the data. The CPU can directly access the data from RAM almost immediately. However, the storage of data and instructions in RAM is temporary, till the time the computer is running. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. i.e it is volatile memory.

 ROM:It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not written or changed onto ROM. ROM is the ‗built-in' memory of a computer. It stores some basic input output instructions put by the manufacturer to operate the computer. The storage of data and instructions in ROM is permanent. It does not depend on the power supply. i.e it is non-volatile memory.

 

Secondary memory: The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not sufficient for large storage of data.  As  a result, additional memory, called the auxiliary‖ or secondary memory is used.  It is also referred as backup storage as it  is used to store large volume of data on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever required for processing. Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main (primary memory) storage. Some of  the devices of secondary storages are  Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, CD-ROM, DVD and Flash drive.

 

1. Floppy Disk: It is also referred as Diskette: and is made of  flexible Vinyl material.  It has a small hole  on  one  side  called  Right  protect  notch,   Which  protects  accidental  writing/deleting  the information from the disk. There is a hole in the centre through which the spindle of drive unit rotates the disk.   The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and 3.5 inches and these could be either low- density or high-density floppies.   Storage capacity of floppies are measured in kilobytes (KB) and

megabytes (MB).  The details about the storage capacities of the floppies are presented below:

 

Floppy Disk

Storage Capacity

Size (Diameter)

Low Density

360 KB

5.25 inches

High Density

1.2 MB

5.25 inches

High Density

1.44 MB

3.5 inches

Extended

2.8 MB

3.5 inches

 

2. Hard Disk:   The hard disk can hold more information than the floppy disk and the retrieval of information from hard disk is faster when compared to floppies or tapes. A hard disk is fixed inside the CPU and its capacity ranges from 20 MB onwards. The hard disk is made up of a collection of discs (one below the other) known as platters on which the data is recorded. These platters are coated with magnetic material.  It is less sensitive to external environmental disorders and hence the storage in hard disk is safe.  A small hard disk might be as much as 25 times larger than a floppy disk. Storage Capacity of hard disks varies from 20 MB to several Gega bytes like 80GB, 160GB.

3.  CD-ROM: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk–Read Only Memory. It is used to store a wide variety of information. Its main advantage is that it is portable and can hold a large amount of data.. The storage capacity of most CD-ROMs is approximately 650 MB or 700 MB.

CD-ROMs have the following variations:

 

(i) CD-R(Compact disc Recordable): Data can be written onto it just once. The stored data can be read. Data once written onto it cannot be erased.

(ii) CD-RW(Compact disc Rewritable): It is also called erasable CD. Data once written onto it can be erased to write or record new information many times.To use a CD-ROM, a device called CD drive is needed.

 

 

4. DVD: DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can store larger amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7MB. DVDs that can store up to

17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are generally used to store a very large multimedia presentations and movies that combine high quality sound and graphics.

 

5. Flash Drive: It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and transfer data. Due to its small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called USB drive. We can read, write, copy, delete, and move data from computer to pen drive or pen drive to computer. It comes in various storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB, 8GB etc. It is popular because it is easy to use and small enough to be carried in a pocket. This device is plugged into the USB port of the computer and the computer automatically detects this device.

 

HARDWARE and SOFTWARE

 

 

Hardware: The physical components of the computer are known as Hardware. It refers to the objects that we can actually touch.

 

Ex:   input and output devices, processors, circuits and the cables.

 

Software: Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a desired way.  The basic difference between the Hardware and Software is just the same as that exists between TV and TV studio.   Without TV studio (software) from where the programs are telecast, the TV (Hardware) is a dead machine.

 There are five categories of software.  They are:

 

1.   Operating System            2. Translators           3. Utility programs         4. Application programs

 

5. General purpose programs

 

 1.   Operating System (OS) : The   software that manages the resources of a computer system and schedules its operation is called Operating system. The operating system acts as interface between the hardware and the user programs and facilitates the execution of programs.

 

Generally the OS acts as an interface between the user and the Hardware of the computer. i.e It is a bridge between the user and the  Hardware.

The User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.

 

CUI  --  Character  user Interface

 

GUI  --  Graphical user Interface

 

CUI  It is operated with keyboard only.  Ex: MS-DOS,   UNIX

 

GUI :   The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard.   Ex: Windows 95,  Windows XP etc

 

·     Disk Operating System (DOS):  It was developed as early as 1980 by Bill Gates at the age of 19.  It is suited  for personal computers. Dos is a single user and single task operating system

 

 

·     WINDOWS :     It works with DOS and it supports single user and multitask system.   Irequires a powerful PC with a minimum RAM of 8 MB .

 

 

·     UNIX AND XENIX It is suited for multi-user and multi-task system

 

 

2.   Translators  : Computers can understand instructions only when they are written in their own language the machine language . Therefore, a program written in  any other language should be translated into machine language The software that translates‖ the instructions of different languages is known as translators .

There are two types of translators. They are  compilers and  Interpreters

 

A Compiler checks the entire user written program (known as the source program) and if it is error free, produces a complete program in machine language (known as object program).  The source program is retained for possible modifications and corrections and the object program is loaded into the computer for execution.  If the source program contains errors, the compilers produce a list of errors athe end of the execution of the program. i.e  a compiler translates the whole program before execution. An interpreter does a similar job but in a different style. The interpreter translates one statement at a time and if it is error free, executes.  This continues till the last statement.  Thus an interpreter translates or executes the first instruction before it goes to the second, while a compiler translates the whole program before execution.

 

The major difference between compiler and interpreter is

 

1.   Error correction  is  very much simpler in  the case of interpreter as  it  translates  the statements in stages.  The compiler produces an error list of the entire program at the end.

2.   Interpreter takes more time for the execution of the program compared to compilers as it translates one statement at a time

 

Programming Languages:  There are three types of programming languages.

 

 

1.   Machine Languages: Computers respond only to machine language.  This language is in terms of binary codes (0,1).  i.e. all programs should be written with these codes, which is difficult, time consuming  and  leading  to  errors  while  writing  the  programs.  There  is  no  unique  standard machine language. Rather there are many machine languages. These are machine dependent. These are referred  as the first generation languages.

 

2.   AssemblLanguages  :  It  uses mnemonic  codes  rather than  numeric  code(as  in  machine languages). Ex. Add or A is used as a symbol for addition.  It requires translators to convert into machine language.  Like machine language, writing program in assembly language is also  time consuming. These are also machine dependent.

 

3.   High Level Languages (HLL): These are referred as problem oriented languages (POL). These are referred as third generation languages. The advantages of these languages are

 

·    The  high level languages are convenient for writing programs as they can be written without any codes.  These languages follow rules likeEnglishlanguage.

 

 

·    Because of their English like nature, less time is required to write a program.

 

 

·    They are machine independent.  A program written in any HLL can be run on computers of different types without any modifications.

 

Several High Level Languages which are in common use: 

  1. FORTRAN :   FORmula TRANslation
  2. COBOL :       Common Business Oriented Language
  3.  BASIC :        Beginner's All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
  4.  PROLOG:     PROgramming in LOGic
  5.  ALGOL :     ALGOrithmic Language

 

3.  Utility Programs: These are pre-written programs supplied by the manufacturer for maintaining day to day activities of computer system.

 

Example: COPY, SORT, MAILING, virus scanning software etc.,

 

 

4. Application Programs: These are user written programs to do a specific job which can be changed to meet the individual needs.  These programs are written in different languages such as BASIC or C or busing database packages like dBASE, OracleExample:  Payroll,   Billing,  Railway Reservation etc.


5. General Purpose Packages: These packages are developed to suit the needs of  research workers scientists in different fields.  These packages are categorized as :

 

 

i) Data Analysis    ii) Word Processing  iii) Spread Shee iv) Graphics an v) Databases

 

Data Analysis

 

Ex:   SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science), MSTAT,      MICROSTAT,    GENSTAT SAS etc.

Word Processing

Ex: WORD PERFECT, WORDSTAR,  MS-Word,   CHIRATOR,  NORTON EDITOR etc.

 

Spread Sheet

 

Ex: LOTUS,   Qpro,  VP-PLANNER,  SYMPHONY,  MS-Excel  etc.

 

Graphics

 

Ex: LOTUS,   STORY-BOARD,  POWER-POINT etc.

 

Databases       

 

Ex:  dBASE,  FOX-BASE,  FOX-PRO, ORACLE, MS-Access  etc.

 

 

Functions of  Operating System Today most operating systems perform the following important functions :

 

 

1.   Processor management : It manages the assignment of processor to different tasks being performed by the computer system.

 

2.   Memory management : It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage areas to the system programmes as well as user programmes and data.

 

3.   Input / Output management : It manages the co-ordination and assignment of different Input and Output devices while one or more programmes are executed.

 

 4.   File management : It allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use of text editors or some other file manipulation routines.

 

5.   Establishment and enforcement of a priority system : It determines and maintains the order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.

 

6.   Interpretation of commands and instructions.

 

 

7.   Facilitates  easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator.

 

Classification of Computers

 

 

Computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose for which they are developed.  These can be classified into three types:

 

1.   Analog Computes       2. Digital Computers          3. Hybrid Computers

 

1. Analog computers: They operate by measuring instead of counting. The name (derived from greek word analog) denotes that the computer functions by establishing similarities between the two quantities.  They are powerful tools for solving differential equations.

 

2.   Digital Computers: These computers operate by counting.  All quantities are  expressed as discrete digits or numbers.   These are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data.

 

3.   Hybrid Computers: Computers which combine the features of analog and digital computers are known as Hybrid computers.

A majority of the computers that are in use are digital.  These computers were essentially developed for computations.  Later, the developments in the computers led to the use of digital computers in variety of applications.  Depending on the use of applications, the  digital computers are classified into   1) Special Purpose Computers  and   2) General Purpose Computers

 

1.   Special Purpose Computers:  These are developed with a specific purpose.  Some of the areas where these computers are being used are soil testing, drip irrigation, medical scanning, traffic signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.,

 

2.   General Purpose Computers: These are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such as simulation, solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database. These computers are available in different sizes and capabilities and are further classified (based on memory, speed, storage) as follows.

 

a) Super Computers       b) Mainframe Computers       c) Mini Computers     d) Micro Computers

 

 

a)   Super Computers: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are atleast 10 times faster than other computers.  These are used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather forecasting  etc.,.     The  first  super  computer  was  developed  in  U.S.A.  by  CRAY computers.   In India the indigenous super computer was  developed under the name Param.

b)   Mainframe Computers: They also have large storag and high computing speed (but relatively lower than the super computers).  They are used in applications like weather forecasting, space applications etc., they support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously, but are expensive

c) Mini Computers: It is   a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available indigenously  and  used  for  large  volume  applications.     It  can  serve  multi-usersimultaneously

 

d)   Micro Computers:  A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system.Micro  computers    are  also  referred  as  personal  computers(PC).     These  are  self contained units and usually developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked to very large systems. They are cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for variety of applications from small to medium range.  These are available in three models:

 

1.  PC : Personal Computer

 

2.  PC-XT : PC with Extended Technology

 

3.   PC-AT : PC with Advanced Technology


PERSONAL COMPUTERS

 

Personal Computer:  A personal computer has a Monitor (VDU), a keyboard , Disk Drive (s), printer and CPU.   The CPU of PC has a mother board with several chips mounted on a circuit board.   The major components of the circuit board are : Microprocessor, RAM and ROM chips and other supporting circuits.

 

Microprocessor:  The Microprocessor chip is like a brain of human being which contains circuits and registers to perform arithmetic, logic and control functions. i.e it contains ALU & CU.   These chips will be able to retrieve data from the input output devices, store, manipulate and process a byte of data at a time.  There is an address bus which is built into these chips to determine the storage locations (of

RAM) of the data and the instructions of the program. Over the years, different microprocessors were developed and the first in the series is INTEL

 

8080. The other procesors are 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium I, II, III and Pentium 4. The Pentium 4 can execute any piece of code that ran on the original 8088, but it does it about 5000 times faster.

 

Clock Speed: The speed with which the instruction is executed or number of pulses per second is called the clock speed.  It is measured in terms of million pulses per second (MHZs).

The following table gives the differences among the different processors that intel has introduced over the years :

 

S.No.

Microprocessor

Date

Transistors

Clock speed

Data width

1

8080

1974

6000

2MHZ

8 bits

2

8088

1979

29,000

5  MHZ

16 bits

8-bit bus

3

80286

1982

134,000

6 MHZ

16 bits

4

80386

1985

275,000

16 MHZ

32 bits

5

80486

1989

1,200,000

25 MHZ

32 bits

6

Pentium I

1993

3,100,000

60 MHZ

32 bits

64-bit bus

7

Pentium II

1997

7,500,000

233 MHZ

32 bits

64-bit bus

8

Pentium III

1999

9,500,000

450 MHZ

32 bits

64-bit bus

9

Pentium 4

2000

42,000,000

1.5 GHZ

32 bits

64-bit bus

10

Pentium 4

―Prescott

2004

125,000,000

3.6 GHZ

32 bits

64-bit bus

 

Peripherals: The input, output and secondary storage units like floppy drives, keyboard, mouse, etc., are called peripherals.

Classification of PCs: PCs are mainly classified on the basis of primary memory (RAM), Microprocessor, clock

 

speed and peripherals. The classification is presented in the following table:

 

S.No.

PC-Type

RAM

Microprocessor

Clock speed

Peripherals

1

PC

640 KB

8088/8086

8 MHZ

Floppy    Drives,    key

board and printer

2

PC-XT

1 MB

8088/8086

18 MHZ

Floppy  Drives,  Hard-

Disk Drive, Key board and printer

3

PC-AT

1 MB to

32 MB

80286 to 80486

25 MHZ and

above

Floppy   drives Hard

disk,            Keyboard, Mouse and Printer

Working with personal computers

 

 

Drives of the computer:  A computer can have  Floppy Disk Drive along with Hard Disk drives in the system.  These are referred as follows:

 

Floppy Disk Drive   :   or B

 

 Hard Disk                :   C

 

 Booting of   the Computer: Booting imply activating the computer for working. Thus, when the computer is switched on, the operating system residing in the floppy or in the hard disk is transferred into the primary memory. After this, the computer is ready to accept the commands at user terminal. If OS is not existing either in floppy drive or in the hard disk drive,  non-system or disk error is flashed on the screen. The booting of the computer is carried out with a software which resides on ROM chip called BIOS ( Basic Input Output System).  Thus when a PC with system disk either in Hard-Disk Drive or Floppy Drive is switched on, the screen finally displays one of the following symbols with a blinking cursor at its end:

a)  A:\>  This imply that the computer is booted through Floppy drive `A' and is ready to accept DOS commands.  The symbol \> is referred as DOS prompt from where DOS commands can be entered.

b)  C:\> It imply that the PC is booted through the Hard-Disk Drive  `C'.

 

Booting is essential whenever the system is locked or switched-off.  A PC can be booted through two ways:         a) Cold Booting           b) Warm Booting.

a) Cold Booting:    It is only switching OFF the system and after some time again switching    ON.

 

b)   Warm Booting:   it  is  carried  out  by  pressing  the  following  three  keys  simultaneously : Ctrl  +  Alt  + Del.    It is preferable to cold booting as it safeguards the system from sudden power fluctuations resulting out of switching ON and OFF the system.

MS-DOS

 

MS-DOS is a collection of programs and other files. It is a single user and single programming environment.

MS-DOS is designed to provide a method of organizing and using the information stored on disks, application programs, system programs and the computer itself.

 

Files and File names: A file is a collection of related information.  The files should have suitable names for their identification in later use.

Rules for naming the files:

 

1.   File names should be of one to eight characters in length with an option of one to three character extension

2.   File names can include any one of the following characters: A to Z (or a to z) 0 to 9, $, &, #, @. %, ( ), { } The characters which are not allowed are:, ; + / \ * as these have special meaning

 

3.   A period (.) is used to separate the first part of a file name from the extension.  (LETTER.TXT, RAMA.WK1, etc.,)

4.   When a file name includes an extension, it should be referred along with its extension and not only with the first part

5.   Reserved devices names are not allowed.  (COMMAND.COM, DATE, etc.,

 

Types of files in DOS: -

 

There are different types of files you can create in your computer, according to the usage.  To differentiate each file, the computer will give an extension to identify the different types of files you have created.

 

Executable Files: The files with extension of either .COM or .EXE are called executable files.  These files are directly executed by typing their names (without the extension) by the computer.  A file with

.COM  extension  refers  to  COMMAND  file  name  and  the  other  with  .EXE  extension  refers

 

EXECUTABLE program file.

 

Batch Files: the file containing a series of DOS commands, which are executed automatically one at a time in the order entered, is known as the batch file.  A batch file has the extension .BAT.  If the batch file is given a special name AUTOEXEC.BAT, it is automatically executed when the computer is switched on or during booting.

 

Backup Files: These are backup files of a file and have extension .BAK.  These files are such that their contents can not be altered (edited).  These files are created while working with WORDSTAR package for typing a document.

System Files: These are program files developed for system control.  They have .SYS extension. Directory: It is a collection of files, size, date and time of creation of files.  The relation between files, directories and disk is similar to the relation between papers, filing folders and filling cabinets.  Just as a cabinet contain papers and other folders, a directory may contain directories also.  The main directory of

a drive is called Root Directory into which several directories and sub-directories may exist.

 

Types of DOS commands:   There are two types of commands:  i) interna and   ii) external

 

i) Internal DOS commands: Internal commands are those commands which manage files. They are loaded into the memory of the PC when PC is booted.  These are stored in a large file with file name COMMAND.COM,  when a PC  is  booted.

1. DIR:     Dir displays continuously the directory of file names, file size, date and time of creation.

 

C:\>dir a:   This command displays the list of files and directories from the drive A   i.e. the floppy drive.

 

It  can be specified with two options:

 

i) Dir/p: It pauses the listing of the directory whenever the screen is full.  The next screen load of files can be   displayed by pressing any key.

ii) Dir/w: displays the files of the  directory in a five column format.  Only file names and their extensions will be displayed without the date and time of creation.

The total number of files and remaining bytes are listed.

 

In addition,  DIR can  also be specified with wildcard characters (such as * or ? to  list files sharing a common element in the file name or extension.

Eg: DISTATS.* : lists all files with  STATS and other combinations along with the extensions. DIR *.COM   :  lists all files with extension .COM

2. DEL:    Deletes a specified file.                       

Syntax:  DEL {filename} Del stats  deletes the file ―stats‖.

Del  stats.*  deletes all extensions of the filestats‖.

 

Suppose you want to delete a file COMPUTER.DOC on A drive, the command will be: C:> DEL A: COMPUTER.DOC ¿

3. COPY:   The COPY command  is used to copy files from one place to another.  The way to execute

 

copy command  is to type COPY leave a space followed by the source file name again a space followed by destination file.

Syntax: copy {Drive name} <source file> {Drive name} <target file name>

 

Ex: 1. COPY STATS MATHS copies a file STATS with the name MATHS on the same drive

 

2. COPY PATH A:ENTO  copies a file PATH‖ from the current drive to driveA‖ with the file name ENTO‖.

3. COPY A:MATHS C:STATS  copies a fileMATHS form drive A‖ to driveC‖  with the file name STATS

4. COPY A:MATHS.* C:STATS.*  copies all extensions of fileMATHS form drive A to drive C with name STATS‖.

4. REN:  The REN command is used to rename the old file with another name. The way to execute

 

Rename command is to type REN leave a space followed by the old file name again followed by a space and  new file name.

Ex: Suppose if you want to change the name of a file MATHS.TXT to STATS.TXT the

 

following command  will work:

 

C:\> REN MATHS.TXT  RESULT.TXT

 


5.DATE:    It displays current date and asks for new date in (mm)-(dd)-(YY) format.  If no date is to be changed, the old date can be retained by pressing enter key.

Syntax: C:\> Date

 

6.TIME:   displays current time and asks for new tine and if no new time is to be entered, pressing

 

enter retains the old time

 

Syntax: C:\> Time

 

7.VER:      displays the version of DOS

 

8.CLS :  when you want to clear the screen, type in the following command:

 

C:\> CLS 

 

ii) External commands: External commands are small file programs used for doing specific jobs.

 

Some of the useful commands :

 

1.   SORT: It sorts the files in alphanumeric order: either A to Z or Z to A

 

DIR| SORT  (or) DIR/ON :  Displays all the files in A to Z order

 

DIR| SORT/R (or) DIR/O-N:   Displays all the files in reverse order (i.e Z to A)

 

2.   FORMAT: Formatting a (new) disk imply organizing the new disk into magnetic tracks and sectors that are readable by DOS.  The PC copies files only on a formatted disk. However, if an old disk is formatted, all the existing files on it would be erased. Hence this command should be  used carefully.

FORMAT a:  formats disk in driveA‖

 

3.

VOL:

This command displays the volume label of the current disk

4.

LABEL:

It is used to create, change or delete the volume label on the disk

5.

PATH:

It is used to provide access to files located on other directories or on other disks.

 

Thus while in C‖ drive, one can directly invoke files of DOS, WORDSTAR (WS)

 

(or)

LOTUS directories by giving the following command:

 

PATH = C:\DOS; C:\WS; C:\LOTUS

 

This command is generally listed in the AUTOEXEC.BAT files  for its execution when the PC is booted

 

6.   MD: It is used to make a new directory (or sub-directory) which is subordinate to the current

(or   root) directory.  It is specified as follows:

 

C:\> MD\STATS   (or) MD STATS : This command makes (creates) a new directory with

 

the name ―  STATS‖.

 

7.   CD  It is used to change from one directory to the other.

 

Iwe have to work with files in the directory STATS, the directory has to be changed to ―STATS‖

Ex:  C:\>CD\ STATS  (or) CD STATS : This command changes the root directory to the

directory STATS.

 

8.   RD It removes or deletes a directory.  To remove a directory, it is essential to first delete all the files in the directory.

To remove the directory STATS, the command is            C:\> RD STATS

 

 

 

9.   TREE: It displays the directories and sub-directories existing in a drive with aTREE‖ diagram. The difference between TREE and DIR commands is that: DIR displays all files with its size, date and time of creation.  It also displays only directories with symbol <DIR>

(without files and sub directories in that directory) whereas, TREE displays directories and sub directories in a drive without files.

 

Computer viruses and Vaccines:

 

Def: A VIRUS is a set of instructions (or program) or software prepared to destroy a package and data.

 

A virus kills data and program files.  Although the purpose for developing such softwares is not

 

known, they appear to be basically developed for a check against the piracy of program packages.

 

Functioning of viruses: viruses reside in executable files such as .COM or .EXE.  Thus when PC is switched on, the virus enters the RAM through  .COM (COMMAND.COM) file and starts destructive work of killing data and program files.  Whenever the PC is switched off, they again go back to the executable files.

 

More than 1000 computer viruses have been identified.  They are classified as :

 

i)

File Allocation Table (FAT) based viruses

ii )Key board viruses and

ii)

File based viruses

 

Some of the well known viruses are:

 

Joshi, Die_Hard-2,   Jerusalem,  Generic,  Brain,  May_5th,  Gumnam,  World peace etc.,

 

VACCINE: It is a software developed for removing the viruses.

 

In DOS version, there are in-built programs to guard against computer viruses.  These are anti-virus programs for both DOS and WINDOWS and a memory resident virus-safe program that guards against the introduction of files that may be affected by virus.

 

Some of the anti-virus vaccines are: NASHSOFT, UTSCAN, AVG, AVIRA, Meccaf etc.

 

WINDOWS

 

Salient features of Windows Operating System:

 

1.   It converts the plain character based user interface provided by DOS into a Graphical User Interface(GUI) such as pictures, symbols and words on your screen that can be controlled by the mouse.

2.   It provides a multitasking capabilities to the PC.

 

3.   It supports long file name rather than the limited 8 characters with extension of three letter file name (8:3) as used by DOS. In Windows file name can have name up to 255 characters long.

4.   Windows owes its name to the fact that it runs each program or document or application in its own separate window.

5.    Windows have the facility of  accessories such as Word pad, Note pad, Calculator and Paint.

 

6.   User can paste portion of one document into another by utilizing more advanced document linking features called Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE), Object Linking and Embedding (OLE).

7.   It provides a big facility of plug and play standard. It allows user to simply plug a new board such as a video, audio or network card into the computer without having a set of switches or making other settings.

8.   If a program crashes, then it will display fault error message about its crash and you can eliminate the crashed program from the task list without affecting other running applications.

 

Hardware required for Windows:

 

1.   MS-DOS version 6.0, 6.2, 6.22

 

2.   A PC with atleast 80386 processor.

 

3.   Atleast 8 MB RAM.

 

4.   A Hard disk with atleast 40-MB of free space to install Windows.

 

5.   Monitor (Super VGA , Monochrome or Multicolored)

 

6.   Mouse.

 

7.   CD drive.

 

Parts of a window screen:

 

Desktop: The desktop is the on-screen work area on which Windows, Icons, menus & dialog boxes appear. The Desktop can have several components. Parts of the desktop include Icons & the taskbar.

Components of the Desktop:

·    Icons

·    Taskbar

 

Icons: Icon is a small image that represents a file, folder or program.

 

The text below each icon is the name of the Icon. When we rest the mouse pointer on an icon, a rectangular box appears. This is referred to as Tooltip. It gives a brief description of the Icon.

By default, there will be 4-5 icons on the desktop.

 

They are:

·    My Computer

·    My documents

·    Internet Explorer

·    Recycle bin

·    Network Neighborhood

 

My Computer: This is the icon which represents all the files & folders which can be used in the system. It is used to access the drives, folders & files on the computer. i.e Floppy drive(A), Local C, D, E, Printer, Control panel  etc.

My Documents:  This is the default storage location for the files created in the windows.

 

Internet Explorer: This is  an application used to browse the internet.

 

Recycle bin: This is a folder that stores all the files & folders deleted from windows temporarily, which can be restored again if needed.

Network Neighborhood: This is an application which display all the computers connected in network with our computer.

Taskbar:   The rectangular  bar that runs horizontally across the bottom of the screen is called Taskbar. The Taskbar has the START menu on the left & the Notification area on the right. We can start an application using the start menu.

Notification area holds system icons that allow for functions such as changing the time & Volume of the Computer.

All the open applications are available on the Taskbar.

Anatomy of a Window:

The window on a desktop is the rectangular area displaying content independently of other areas of the

screen.

The different parts of a window are the Title bar, Menu bar, the Toolbar, and the min, max & close buttons. These tools are used to manage the window & the components within it.

Title bar – This is the title of the window, like your name at the top of a piece of paper. The Title bar is also the handle for the window. If you click and hold the mouse button down on the title bar, you can move it around the screen.

 

}   Minimize – To have a window take the minimum amount of desktop space possible, click the minimize button. This drops the window into the Task bar like a piece of paper going into a drawer. The Task bar will show the task whether or not the window is minimized.

}   Maximize – To have a window take the maximum desktop space, click the maximize button.

This stretches the window out like an architect's floor plan being rolled out over the desk.

}   Restore – A maximized window will cover over all the other windows and icons on the desktop.

The Restore button places the window back so that more than one window can display at a time.

}   Close (X) When done with a window, you can have it taken completely off the desktop by closing it. Use the X button to do this.

 

Menu bar:  The Menu bar displays a list of commands that can be used to perform various tasks. ( this will be below the Title bar). Menu items are commands within the menu bar that allow choosing of

functions & tasks.

 

Tool barcontains a set of buttons for frequently used commands.

 

Scroll Bars: On the bottom and right edges of  a window we find scroll bars. They are used to pan across the information in the window, when we have information which won't fit into the window.  The Status Bar :The Status bar appears at the very bottom of  the window and provides such information as the cursor position, current page number,  the number of words in the document etc.

Booting in Windows:

 

·    When the computer is switched on, the BIOS is activated.

 

·    The BIOS present in ROM searches for the operating system and drives.

 

·    If there is no OS, it shows non-system or disk error.

 

·    If OS is present, then it transfers the OS from ROM to RAM.

 

·    Then the desktop is displayed on the monitor.

 

WINDOWS EXPLORER

 

Windows Explorer is an application that provides detailed information about your files, folders, and drives. You can use it to see how your files are organized and to copy, move, and rename files, as well as perform other tasks pertaining to files, folders, and drives.

 

Explorer uses the directory windows to graphically display the directory structure of your disk and files. Windows Explorer displays the contents of the entire system in a hierarchical manner.

 

To open Windows Explorer, click   Start à All programs à Accessories à Windows Explorer

 

 

Windows Explorer is divided into 2 panes. The left pane displays the list of drives & folders on the computer. The right pane displays the contents of the selected drive or folder. By using these two panes, you can browse through the contents of your computer in a single window. Folder is  list of files

(similar to Directory in MS-DOS)

 

Working with Folders:

Creating a Folder:

1.   From the tree pane : select the directory under which you want to create a sub directory.

 

2.   Choose FileàNewàFolder. On the right pane of the screen, a new folder is created.

3.   Type in the name of the directory and press ENTER. You can notice the change in the tree structure immediately.

 

 

Creating files:

 

After creating a folder, we can move files into it or create new files within the folder.

 

Selecting files & folders:

 

i)         To select all the files in a folder:

 

Click the folder in the left pane à All the files will be displayed in the right pane. To select all --àCTRL + A

ii)        To select consecutive files: Use shift key + arrow keys

iii)       To select  non-consecutive files:

 

·    In the  right pane of  Windows Explorer, click the first item to be selected.

 

·    Hold down CTRL

 

·    Click all other items that need to be selected.


Copying Files & Folders:

 

Once we select the files to be copied, the next step is to copy the files. To copy the files & folders:

i)         In Windows Explorer, select the file or folder to be copied. ii)        On the edit menu click copy

( the files are copied to the clip board. The clip board is a location where the information you copy or cut is temporarily stored)

iii)       Click the destination folder in the left pane. iv)       In W.Exp, click paste in the Edit menu.

Alternatively, to copy a file or folder, select it and then press ctrl +C. To paste,  press ctrl+ V

 

To move the files or folders:

 

i)         select the folder to be moved. ii)        On the edit menu, click cut

iii)       Click the destination folder in the left pane iv)       On the edit menu, click paste.

Alternatively, to cut a file or folder, select and press ctrl +X & then to paste,  press ctrl +V.

 

Renaming files or folders:

 

i)         Select the item to be renamed ii)        Choose File à Rename

iii)       Current name gets selected, Type in the new name iv)       Press Enter.

Deleting files or folders:

 

If you do not want certain files or folders, you can delete them. All the files & folders which are deleted are moved to the recycle bin.

To delete:

 

i)         Select

 

ii)        On the file menu, click delete or press delete.

 

A warning appears prompting you to confirm the file deletion. iii)       If you want to delete, click yes otherwise No.

Note: To delete a file permanently without moving it to the Recycle bin, select the file & then press Shift+ Del.

 

WORD PROCESSING

Definition: Word-processing is essentially typing, editing, and manipulation of a document in a desired

 

form.

 

Units of  the Document:

 

Since word-processing is concerned with preparation of a document (in  a desired form), it is essential to know the units of the document:

 

1. Character: It refers to the alphabets, numerical digits, punctuations and other special symbols which are commonly used in the text.

 

2. Word: A word is group of characters that are separated from other group of characters by some delimiters like, comma, full stop and space.

 

3. Sentence: A sentence is a group of words preceded and followed by appropriate delimiting characters.

 

4. Paragraph: It is a group of one or more sentences, paragraphs are separated by leaving blank lines between them.

 

5. Pages: It is the amount of text that can be printed on one page of a paper.

 

6. Chapters: It is a collection of pages

 

7. Documents and files: It is  a group of chapters. Usually, a complete document may be very short such as a memo(or letter) or very long such as a book consisting of several chapters.  These documents are referred as Files.

 

Features of Word-processing:

 

1.   Word-wrap

2.   cursor control

3.   editing

4.   formatting

5.   spell-check

6.   thesaurus

7.   macros

8.   printing

9.   file management

10. mail merge printing

 

1.   Word-wrap: In word-processing packages, the text can be continuously typed and the computer automatically starts a fresh line when a line is filled up.  As soon as the length of a sentence exceeds the right margin, the corresponding word is automatically adjusted in the following line. This is called word-wrap.  A paragraph is created only when carriage control is externally given for a sentence.

2.   Cursor Control: The four directional keys of the keyboard (                   ) helps in locating the text for editing in much the similar manner as that of a pointer or pencil.

3.   Editing: Words or lines can be entered (inserted) or deleted in any part of the text with proper alignment .   Similarly, there is a facility to recover' the text which is deleted by mistake or accidentally.   Another important facility is that any word' can be replaced by a new word through out the file, wherever the old word appears. In addition to these, a block of text(which is

frequently used) can be  prepared and moved or copied wherever desired in the file.

 

4.   Formatting : The text formatting refers to the way the text is desired to appear on a page.  This includes following functions

·    setting left and right margins

·    paragraph settings

·    line spacing

·    selecting font specifications such as underline, bold, italics, superscripts and subscripts

 

·    setting foot-notes

 

·    number of lines per page

·    printing page numbers and headings for Header' and ‗Footer'

·    table of contents

·    indexing the text

5.   Spell-check: Word-processing packages provide checking of spellings facility

 

6.   Thesaurus: It provides synonyms (or words with similar meanings)

 

7.   Macros: A macro is a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The ability to define macros allows us to save a lot of time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.

8.   Printing: It gives a ‗hard' copy of the text.  The printing can be controlled after printing a fixed

 

number of pages or can be resumed from any specified page number.

 

9.   File management: This facility allows to create, delete, move & search for files.

 

10. Mail  merge  printing:  This  facility  helps  in  printing  same  original‖  letter  with  different addresses, so that each letter is original‖ and not a carbon copy.

Word-processing Packages: Several word-processing packages are available.  Some of these are listed below:

 

MS-WORD

 

MS- Word is a word processor. The extension name of MS- word is  .doc. It is an application used to create, edit, print and save a document. It allows the user to insert pictures, tables, charts, drawings & features that will make the text richer & more interactive.

( The term document refers to a file created using word processor)

 

 

Starting MS-Word:

Start à All Programs à MS-officeà MS-word

MS-word icon is  w.

The default Word document includes the following layout tools:

 

·    Title bar: displays the document name and the application.

 

·    Menu bar: Contains the list of menus available inside word, each menu contains a specific set of commands.

·    Standard toolbar: provides shortcuts in the form of buttons for frequently performed tasks.

 

·    Formatting toolbar: Contains a list of formatting options available inside the format menu.

 

·    Horizontal & Vertical rulers:  used for measurement purposes like any normal ruler; the default unit of measure is in inches.

·    White page area: is the space area where you type, edit and format  your document.

 

·    Insertion point : is the blinking vertical line that indicates the position on the screen where text or graphics will be placed.

·    Task pane : is a small window within the word window that provides shortcuts to commonly used tasks.

·    Scroll bars : are used to move up and down or left and right in a document.

·    Status bar: displays the details such as  the page number the user is working on, section no., page no. out of the total pages found in the document, line number, column number etc.

Standard Toolbar:

This toolbar contains buttons to allow you to perform the basic operations such as opening and closing a

document, moving and printing data.

 

Function of commonly used buttons

 

·    New:   Creates a new blank document based on the default template

 

·    OpenOpens or finds an existing file

 

·    SaveSaves the active file with its current file name, location and file format

 

·    Print: Prints the active file - for more print options go to the File menu and select Print

 

·    Print preview : Shows how the document will look when you print it.

 

·    Spelling & Grammer:  Spelling, grammar and writing style checker

·    Cut : Removes the selection from the document and places it on the clipboard

 

·    Copy :  Copies the selected item(s) to the clipboard

 

·    Paste : Places the content of the clipboard at the insertion point

 

·    Format painter : Copies the format from a selected object or text and applies to other objects

·    Undo : Reverses the last command, use pull-down menu to undo several steps

 

·    Redo : Reverses the action of the Undo button, use the pull-down menu to redo several steps

 

·    Insert table: Insert a table into the document, or make a table of selected text

 

·    Insert Excel worksheet:  Inserts an Excel spreadsheet into the Word document

 

·    Columns : Changes the number of columns in a document

 

·    Drawing: Displays or hides the Drawing toolbar

 

·    Zoom (100%): Enlarge or reduce the display of the active document

 

Formatting Toolbar:

The formatting Tool bar is the easiest way to change many attributes of a text.

·    Style menu: Allows you to make your text Bold, Italic, underlined… depending on the style you

 

choose.

 

·    Font : Allows you to change  the font by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right of the font name box. You can view a list of fonts available, you can scroll down to view more fonts and select the font name you wish to use by clicking on its name.

·    Font size : Allows you to change the font size by clicking inside the Font size box and entering a value or by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right of the box to view a list of sizes available. Select then a size by clicking on it.

·    Bold, Italic, Underline : Each button respectively allows you to make your text appear as bold, italic or underlined.

·    Alignment : Each button respectively allows you to make your text aligned to the left, center or right side of the page. You can also justify the text across the page using the justify button.

·    Line spacing : Allows you to set the amount of space that word puts when go to a new line.

·    Text orientation : Allows you to change the typing direction of your text, from left to right or right to left manner.


·    Numbering, Bullets : Allows you to make your text appear as a bullets list or as a numbering list.

·    Increase / Decrease  indent :  Allows you to increase or decrease the indentation of your paragraph in relation to the side of the page.

·    Outside Border : Allows you to add a border around a text selection.

 

·    Highlight color : Allows you to change the color behind a text selection.

 

·    Font colour : Allows you to change the colour of the text.

 

 

Features of FILE MEN ( ALT F)

1. New          - Opens new Word file (Blank Document file)

 

2. Open         - Opens the existing files

 

3. Save         - Saves the file with one name

 

4. Save as      -Saves the file with more than one name( with different formats)

 

5. Save as Web page – This is used to save a document in a Web style. (with HTML extension)

 

6. Versions   - This is used to do the parts of work in small parts. i.e a bulk ( big/ morework can be done in small  parts.

7. Web Page Preview – This shows the web page in printable form.

 

8. Page set up  - To set the margin, paper size, Orientation

 

9. Print    - To get the printout.( Specified pages and no. of copies).

 

10. Properties  - This gives the details about the document ( the type of file, the size of file, the date of creation, date of modification and file location)

11. Sen -  This is used to send the file document to internet mail to some other person.

 

12. Exit     - To close the Ms-word.


 

Features of EDIT MENU (ALT E):

 

Undo    - Will take the previous command (ctrl +Z)

 

Redo     - Will take the opposite action of undo ( Ctrl + Y)

 

Cut        - Can cut a selected text ( Ctrl + X) Copy     - Can copy a selected text ( Ctrl + C) Paste    - Can paste the selected text ( Ctrl + V) Del        - Removes the selected text

Find      - Used to find the part of text word \ character in the file (Ctrl + F)

 

Find Next (F3) Finding \ finding next : Used to repeat the finding process.

 

Replace - Used to replace any part of Text / word / Character with another word/ character.(Ctrl + H)

 

Paste special – This will paste  the copied (or) cut text in a form of an object. It will paste in box which

 

Cannot be altered.

 

Go To  - Curser goes to the specified page, specified line, specified paragraph.(Ctrl + G) Features of  FORMAT MENU ( ALT + O)

1.   Fon- used to change the font face, style, size etc.

 

2.   Paragraph  - Used to set the space between paragraphs and also between the lines

 

3.   Bullets   - Used to highlight points in number wise / bullet wise.

 

4.   Borders & Shades  - Used to apply different borders to the table / to the page.

 

5.   Columns – Used to write the text in column wise.

 

To have a break in columns, a column break is used  ( insert menu à break à Columns) Ctrl  + Shift  + Enter

6.   Drop Cap  - Used to drop the letter to different lines.

7.   Text direction  - Used to change the direction of drop ca (Note : To use text direction, drop cap must be used first)

8.   Change case  - Used to change the case of the text.

 

9.   Toggle – This converts lower case letters to upper case & vice versa in a word.

 

10. Back Ground  - This is used to change the back ground colour of the document but the color can  be seen only in the web layout.

11. Theme  - This is used to change the document, backgrounds with some existing design background. This shows the background only in the web layout.

12. Style - This is used to change the writing fashion of the document which are already existing.

 

13. Frame- Frames are used to write different documents in one single document.

 

 

 

  Some important features of Tools menu:

 

Spelling &Grammar : Used to check the spelling and correct the words with related word. ( F7)

 

Thesaurus                : Used to know the synonym (meaning) of the word (Shift +F7)

 

Mail merge              : used to type the letters with the same matter but different addresses.

 

MS  WORD – working with files: Creating a New document:

·    Click the New Blank document button on the standard tool bar.    (or)

·    From the Menu bar, choose File à New, the New document task pane will open, and select

Blank document.

Opening Existing documents:

·    Click the open button  found on the Standard tool bar.   (or)

·    From the task pane, select getting started and the select more    (or)

·    From the Menu bar, select File à Open

Saving a document:

·    Click  the Save button on the Tool bar.  (or)

·    From the Menu bar, select   File à Save    (or)

·    Follow the key sequence Ctrl + S

Save dialog box appears. Type the name and click Save.

Printing a document :

·    Select   File à Print        (or)

·    Click on the Print button on the Standard Tool bar   (or)

·    Click  Ctrl + P

Print dialog box appears. Select  All page(or)  Current page   (or)  type the page numbers  and also select number of copies  according to the requirement  and click O.K

Closing a document:

·    Select File à close

·    Click on the small X found on the right top next to the Menu bar and the Title bar.

MS WORD - Editing Text : Typing and Inserting Text:

 

To enter text in your document, position the insertion point  i.e a vertical blinking line, where you want the text to appear and type it in.

Word will automatically wrap text as it reaches the end of a line. Press enter to start a new paragraph. When you reach the end of a page, word will automatically break text onto the next page. If you want, you can start a new page at any point by inserting a page break. To do so, press ctrl +

Enter.

 

33


Word offers two modes for adding text to your documents: Insert mode and  overwrite mode. In Insert mode, characters typed are inserted into the text to the left of the insertion point, pushing any characters to the right of the insertion point further to the right. In overtype mode, the text you type will replace the existing text.

Note:  The Insert key is a toggle key. This means that the same key can be used to switch back and forth between two different modes.

Selecting Text:

 

In order to change the format of the text you just typed, it must be first highlighted, i.e selected with the mouse cursor.

To highlight the whole text  or part of it, locate the mouse at the start of the text you wish to highlight and click the left button, then  drag the mouse over the desired text while keeping the left mouse button pressed.

Shortcuts used for selecting a portion of the text:

·    Whole word :  Double click within the word.

·    Whole paragraph: Triple click within the paragraph.

·    Sentence : ctrl + click in a sentence

·    Entire document :  Edit à select all ( ctrl + A)

 

 

Deleting text:

 

·    Use the  BACKSPACE or the  DELETE key to delete text.

 

·    BACKSPACE key will delete text to the  left of the cursor and  DELETE key will erase text to the right.

·    To delete a large section of text, highlight the text using any of the methods outlined above and press the DELETE key.

 

 

Moving, copying and pasting text: Cut text:

Highlight the text you need to move and follow one of the methods listed below:

 

·    From the Menu bar, select Edit à cut     (or)

 

·    From the standard tool bar, click on the cut button.  (or)

 

·    Follow the key sequence  Ctrl + X

 

Copy text:

 

·    From the  Menu bar, select Edit à cop (or)

 

·    From the standard toolbar, click the Copy button   (or)

 

·    Follow the key sequenc Ctrl + C

 

Paste Text:

 

To paste previously cut or copied text, move the cursor to the location you want to move the text to and follow one of the methods listed below:

·    From the menu bar, select Edit à Paste    (or)

 

·    From the standard Tool bar, click the Paste button    (or)

 

·    Follow the key sequence    Ctrl + V

 

MS-ACCESS

 

The Database is an organized collection of data related to a particular topic or purpose. The database serves as a base from which a desired information can be retrieved, many meaningful conclusions can be drawn. A database stored electronically has distinct advantages over a manually organized system. A database can be maintained in a computer by using a database  management system(DBMS).

DBMS is an application that enables to maintain data in a database. Maintaining data involves storing, organizing and retrieving data.

MS-Access is a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) that is used to store and manipulate large amount of information. The extension name of Ms-Access file is  .mdb.

To start MS-Access:

 

1.   Startà Programs àMS office à Ms-Access à Enter

 

2.   Start à Run àMs-Access àEnter

 

An Access Database consists of 7 different Database objects.

 

1.   Tables : Store database data in Rows (records)  and columns (fields). Every row represents a

 

Record. Each piece of information in a record is called a Field.

 

Ex: A table can contain personal information about all the students in a college.

 

Every row containing   information   about a student represents a record. The records in the student table can include fields such as Admission number, Student name, Address, Phone number etc.

2.   Queries : used to retrieve information from a database based on specific conditions.

 

Ex: A Query can be used to extract details about students studying in a particular class.

 

3.   Forms : used as interfaces for users to enter, view and modify data in a Table.

 

4.   Reports : used to present data from tables or Queries in a format of our  choice. i.e the printable form of the table or query or form. We cannot make changes to the data in a report. We can format the data in a report.

5.   Pages : display shortcuts to data access pages in the database. A data access page displays data stored in a database over the internet.

6.   Macros : used to automate frequently performed tasks.

 

Ex: we can create  a macro to print a report automatically.

 

7.   Modules : used to perform advanced database operations, such as validating data against complex conditions.

Creating a Database :

 

A Database can be created by using the database Wizard or by using the Blank Database command.

·    The database Wizard is used to create tables, forms, queries and reports by following a series of steps provided by the wizard.

·    The Blank Database command is used to create a blank database. All database objects should be created manually.

Click on File menu à New à Enter

 

A window appears à give a name to the database

 

 

Creating a Table :

 

1. Open the database in which the table is to be created.

 

The database window appears.

 

2.  under objects, click Tables and then click New on the database window toolbar.

 

The New Table dialog box appears.

 

Commands in the New Table dialog box

 

Command

Purpose

Create table by

 

entering data

Used to create a table by entering values directly in a row and column format

Design view

Used to assign fields for the new table and modify field properties

Table wizard

Used to create a table through a guided sequence of steps

I. Create Table by entering data:

 

·    Click on Table (object) in the main switch board.

 

·    Click on create table on Datasheet view à now a window appears à here we find fields ( field1,

 

field2,……)

 

·    Give the field names ( Name, roll no., marks etc)

 

·    Click on close button of the table and save the table with some name

 

·    To enter details into the table, click on table in the main switch board and double click on the table name.

·    Enter the details

 

 

Working with Database Fields :

 

Microsoft Access database fields are created by entering a field name and a field data type in each row of the field entry area of the database table window.

 

Data types in MS-Access :

 

The following list summarizes all the field data types available in MS- Access, their uses and their storage sizes.

·    Text : used for text or combinations of text and numbers, such as  addresses or for numbers that do not require calculations, such as phone numbers, or postal codes.

Stores up to 255 characters.

 

·    Memo : Used for lengthy text and numbers, such as notes or descriptions. Stores upto 64,000 characters.

·    Number : used for data to be included in Mathematical calculations, except calculations involving money. Stores 1,2,4 or 8 bytes.

·    Date / Time : used for dates and times. Stores 8 bytes.

 

·    Currency : used for currency values and to prevent rounding off during calculations. Stores 8 bytes.

·    Auto Number used for unique sequential  or  random numbers that are  automatically inserted when a record is added.

·    Yes /No : used for data that can be only one of two possible values, such as yes/ No, True/False, On/Off.

·    OLE object : used for OLE objects like pictures, graphs and other binary data. Stores up to

 

1 GB.

 

II. Create a table in Design view:

 

1.   click on table (object) in the main switch board.

 

2.   Here click on ―  create table in design view àNow a window appears à here type the field names and their data types respectively.

Ex:

 

Field name

Data types

Roll No

Auto Number

Name

Text

Marks

Number

3.   click on the close button of the table and save it with some name

 

4.   To enter data into the table, double click on the table created.

 

5.   Now enter the details.

 

Primary & Foreign keys:

 

Data should be checked for redundancy before it is stored in a database. Keys are used to maintain the integrity of data. Keys contain unique values that help to filter redundant information from the input data. Keys are of two types: primary & foreign.

Primary key: The field in a table that uniquely identifies each record is called the primary key. Usually this field is sequentially numbered.

Ex : Admission number field

Foreign key : When a primary key of one table appears as a field in another table, the field is called the foreign key in the second table.

 

Queries :

 

·    By using queries we can view, change and analyze data in different ways. You can also use them as the source of records for forms and reports.

·    You can bring together data from multiple tables and sort it in a particular order.

 

·    You can perform calculations on groups of records.

 

Forms :

 

·    In a table, number of records are displayed at a time. But, if the table has many fields, then it may not be possible for a user to view all of them. The screen may be too small to fit it. The user may have to scroll horizontally or vertically to view the rest of the fields/ records.

·    In forms, the data can be displayed as per the users requirement. The records are generally displayed one at a time. The fields can be arranged as the user wants it. Pictures can be added to a form. The display and contents of the form is controlled fully by the user.

·    In forms there are 3 views,

 

i. Design     ii. Datasheet  & iii. Form view

 

·    The datasheet view shows many records whereas form view displays single record. You can toggle between these three views using the View  Tool.

Report:

 

The data shown in a table, Query and forms are meant for displaying it on screen, but when you take the printout or the Hard copy, it is known as Report. In the database window, the open button is replaced by the preview button, when you click the report tab. Reports can be viewed either in print preview mode or design mode. Data cannot be edited in the reports. The report preview shows how the data will appear on taking out the printouts.

Networking and Internet

A network is an arrangement that enables two or more computers to communicate (talk) to each

 

Types of  Networks

 

Networks  can  range  from  a  small  group  of  computers  linked  together  in  a  class  room  to thousands of computers linked together across the globe. Depending on the geographical location, networks can be classified as

 

a)  LAN ( Local Area Network)

b)  MAN ( Metropolitan Area Network)

c)  WAN (Wide Area Network)

 

Local Area Network:  If a network is confined to a single location, typically a building, it is called a

 

LAN.

 

Ex : Set of interconnected computers within an office.

 

Metropolitan Area Network: A metropolitan area network is a network that is larger than a LAN, it connects the computers distributed across multiple buildings.

Ex: the computers in all branches of an office within a city.

 

Wide Area Network: When a network is located over wide areas such as cities, states, countries or even continents, it is called a WAN.

Ex :   i. Computers in different branches of a Globalised company.

 

ii.  Internet

 

INTERNET

The internet is a global connection of computers.  These computers are connected via a huge network of telecommunication links.  The internet allows you to access to a whole resource of data and information stored at different sites (called  hosts) and locations  around the world.  The communication links which inter connect each host computer use a common method of transmission known as TCP/IP, which stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

 

Internet connection helps us to:

 

1.   Read information on a wide range of topics

 

2.   Send or receive E-mail

 

3.   Down load useful programs such as virus detectors, file compression, decompression utility etc.,

 

4.   Share your opinions and your knowledge on a variety of topics through various new groups.

 

5.   Chat with other people any where in the world

 

6.   View interesting video's listen to music or wander through a 3-D world.

 

Requirements for connecting to the Internet:

 

a) Modem: A modem is a peripheral device that allows a computer to connect and communicate with other computers. Modem stands for Modulator Demodulator.

b)  Web Browser: A browser is a software program that is necessary in order to view web pages  on  the  web.     Ex:  Internet  Explorer,  Netscape  Navigator,  Mozilla  Firefox, Microsoft outlook express etc.

c)  Telephone line:   A telephone line is required to transfer data from one computer to another. The computer is connected to a modem, which, in turn, connected to a telephone line.

 

d)  Subscription with Internet service provider (ISP):  ISP's are companies that provide access to the internet. We need subscription with any ISP to get an Internet connection. Some of the ISPs in India are VSNL, MTNL, Sify, Specrta Net etc.

World Wide Web (WWW):

 

It refers to the collection of information accessible on the internet. The web is similar to a library. It consists of millions & millions of pages of text, pictures, sounds and animation on various topics. These pages, called web pages are stored on different computers that are connected to the internet. The web pages have links between them i.e when we click a certain word or picture in a page, it will take us to another page. These words or pictures that help to move from one page to another are called hyperlinks. A collection of related web pages is known as a web site. A web site can be accessed by means of a unique name assigned to it.

Internet was initially designed for the transmission of text basing on the protocols mentioned. In order to transmit a graphically designed web page complete with pictures, embedded sound and animation a special language was designed which is referred to as Hyper Text Mark up Language (HTML).  HTML uses special text codes to define the various elements of a web page.

The WWW support a protocol called Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) All internet servers cannot support HTTP and so the web can be regarded as a subset of the larger internet.

HTTP provides a method of transmitting a professionally laid out page over the text based internet. Uniform Resource Locator: (URL): Each web site has a unique address commonly referred to as a URL. A URL specifies the exact location of the web page on the internet.

A typical web address or URL looks as http:// www.microsoft.com/catalog/navigation.asp

 

Explanation  of the example URL:

 

URL Element

Explanation

http

Identifies protocol necessary to retrieve the file.

WWW

Indicates that the site is on the world wide web

Microsoft

Indicates the name of the web site

.com

Indicates the domain type of the web site

/catalog/navigation.asp

Specifies the path of the file stored on the web server's hard disk

 

 

E-Mail

 

E-mail or electronic mail is a service for sending or receiving messages electronically through a computer network. The electronic mail uses various technologies that support electronic transmission of text, data and graphics.

 Some of the features of E-mail are

 

1.   it is much faster than the normal mail. Messages can be sent within a matter of seconds to any part in the world.

2.   it can be sent to many people at the same time

 

3.   E-mail is cheaper than a phone call and an ordinary mail

 

4.   it can access information and file libraries on request

 

5.   E-mail user can have a mail box which is accessed through a computer terminal

 

6.   an E-mail message consists of two parts

a)  a header specifying the address of the sender and the address of the receiver b)  the text of the message

7.   The  mailing  system  allows  selecting  messages  for  reading,  displaying,  saving,  deleting, forwarding and replying.

8.   Mailing list can be created to send the same message to a group of people

 

 

 E-Mail Address: An  E-Mail address consists of three parts

 

1.   The person's Login name

 

2.   @ sign

 

3.   Domain name

 

A domain represents organization, network, and country name

 

Ex:  Statisitcs@hotmial.com    in  this  Statistics is  the user name and  his  account  is  in  the domain hotmail.com.  Both the names are separated by the @symbol.

 

Search Engines :

 

Search engines are utilities used to search for information on the web. A user interface is provided where you can enter the word or phrase you are searching for. The search engine looks for the keywords we have entered  and returns the results of the search, providing links to relevant Web sites for us to choose from. Some commonly used search engines are MSN, Alta Vista, Google, Yahoo! search and

Infoseek etc.

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