In the early 16th century, many
English Protestants were unhappy with the Church of England. In September 1620, about 100 religious dissenters,
who later came to be known as the
Pilgrim Fathers, set
sail for America aboard a vessel the
Mayflower. They
hoped to settle in North America and live and worship in peace. Intending to
land in Virginia, instead they arrived at the coast of New England after a stormy voyage.
Before they landed, the Pilgrims drew up an agreement, the Mayflower Compact,
establishing a government for their colony, which they named Plymouth Plantation.
Half the settlers did not survive their first winter in America, but help from
the Native Americans helped the colony to eventually flourish. The hospitable
Natives helped the settlers to farm crops suited to the land and climate, and
also traded goods with them.
In the late 16th and 17th centuries, many English, French and Dutch emigrants
went to North America. They supported themselves by cultivating crops that they
could sell to England, like tobacco,
indigo, and rice. Most of the workers on the plantations
were slaves and servants bound by contracts.
By 1733 thirteen English colonies had been
founded along the eastern coast of North America, the last being Georgia. The
French occupied Canada.
1. The northern colonies of New England were occupied by Puritans, who had got leave from James I to
found an English colony in America. They loved learning and education and were
politically more conscious.
2. The southern colonies like Georgia and Virginia had large estates having tobacco and
cotton plantations worked by slaves.
3. There were other English
colonies like Pennsylvania and Maryland occupied by Quakers and Catholics.
Before the 1750s there were sporadic wars between the English and
the French colonists over trade and as an extension of quarrels in Europe. In
1753, the French moved south from Canada to occupy part of the Ohio valley.
The British troops and colonists from the east coast were sent
against them. Both sides won battles, but there was no conclusive victory.
Between 1756 and 1763 a series of wars was fought between the British and the
French.
In1759, the British took the Canadian city of Quebec. British control of all Canada was
agreed in the1763 Treaty
of Paris, which
ended the Seven Year
War.
The British government then tried to strengthen its authority over
the colonists, imposing new taxes. The colonists rose in revolt, and won
independence, creating the
United States of America. In1783, Great Britain recognized the
independence of the states.
The two great revolutions, namely the American Revolution and the
French Revolution that broke out in the second half of the eighteenth century
have been great landmarks in world history and have inspired freedom loving
people of other countries to overthrow their colonial masters and eventually
move towards democracy.
OnJuly 1, 1776, a grim-faced group of men gathered
inside the sweltering statehouse at Philadelphia. They were the representatives
of the 13 British-owned colonies in North America. The reason for their
presence here was a session of the colonies' fledgling parliament, the Continental Congress. The resolution that awaited their
consideration was the most momentous and dangerous they had ever
debated........... that all of the American colonies
should declare themselves independent of their mother country, Britain, and
thereby bring to an end one and a half centuries of rule by a king and
parliament 5,000 kilometres across the Atlantic Ocean.
1. Underlying Causes of the Revolt
1. The Old Colonial System: The colonies had been acquired in an age when
all statesmen had accepted the theories of mercantilism. In these theories
colonies, shipping-trade, and national security were all closely related. The
colonies aided the Mother Country by promoting trade, which increased the
amount of shipping and the number of sailors. In return, the colonies received
protection from the home government.
The English government wished to be economically self-sufficing,
and therefore encouraged the colonists:
1. To produce goods which could not be produced in England.
2. To receive manufactured goods in exchange (consequently they
were prohibited from producing goods which England already manufactured).
3. To trade as little as possible with other nations, and then
only in English ships.
To achieve these purposes, the English government had enacted the Navigation Acts of 1650,1651, and
1660. These
regulations were very unpopular in America, as it limited the freedom of the
colonists to the sale and purchase of goods and affected their commerce.
2. Lack of Sympathy between the Colonists and the English: The
colonists were mostly descendants of 17th century emigrants. They
had developed on lines very different from the English at home.
Distance and the slowness of communication increased the difficulty
of maintaining close relations. Each of the thirteen states had its own
governor and assembly, and there was as much friction among the states as there
was with England. The New Englanders especially had always resented any
interference from the home Government. .
3. The Results of the Seven Years War : Fear of the French had
been the main bond uniting the colonists with the English Government. The
defeat of the French in North America ended the dependence of the colonists on
British troops.
4. The Cost of Defence: The quarrels that began in 1765 arose
directly out of the refusal of the colonists to shoulder the burden of paying
for their own defence, past and future.
3. Mercantilism
Mercantilism was based on the belief that as wealth is the basis
of the power of a state, the government ought to encourage and regulate its
production by controlling agriculture, industry and trade.
Queen Elizabeth I of England (reign 1558-1587) was
greatly influenced by this and she aimed to :
1. Encourage shipping for
defence and for the promotion of wealth (for example, an Act to enforce the
eating offish).
2. Keep favourable balance of
trade (i.e., prevent an excess of imports over exports) so that the state would
not be weakened by the export of gold and silver.
3. Encourage by monopolies,
bounties, and tariffs those industries which she considered beneficial to
England, especially those necessary in wartime (e.g., ship-building, iron).
4. Organize industry and trade
so that she could easily control them.
4. Immediate Causes of the Revolt
The main quarrels
that led up to the war :
1. The Sugar Act
(1763): In 1763, George Grenville became Prime Minister of Britain. In an
endeavour to increase Britains income, he passed an Act which required duty to
be paid on imported sugar.
2. Grenville's
Quartering and Stamp Act (1765-1766): When the colonists refused to agree on
methods of contributing to defence, the Stamp Act and the Quartering Act were
passed in 1765.
The Stamp Act
required all legal documents to bear a small revenue stamp. The Quartering Act
required that the colonists supply the soldiers with living quarters, fuel,
cider or beer.
This provoked an
outbreak among the colonists, and so it was repealed in 1766; but at the same
time the Declaratory Act was enacted to assert the rights of the British to tax the colonies.
3. Townshend's Duties (1767-1770): The second attempt of the British
Parliament to raise revenue was by duties on English manufactured goods
imported by the colonists. Again the colonists resisted, and the duties were
withdrawn in 1770, except that on tea.
4. The Tea Act and Boston (1773): The last quarrel arose when the East
India Company obtained permission to export tea directly to the colonies.
Opposition to this Act was shown by the'Boston tea- party'.
British Parliament,
hearing of this 'Boston Tea Party' took firm action by closing the Boston Port
and suspending the Massachusettes charter, stationing a large number of troops
in and around the town, and thus brought the citizens of Massachusettes
directly under the control of England.
Declaration of Rights: Hearing of this, all the other colonies except
Georgia sided with Massachusettes and sent delegates to the Congress of
Philadelphia and issued aDeclaration of Rights demanding that the colonies could not be taxed without their consent.
Even at this time the Congress has no intention of breaking away from the
British Empire. It was only after the outbreak of war that the demand for
independence arose.
No Taxation without Representation
When George Grenville became Britain's Prime Minister, he
invited the colonists to make a voluntary contribution to the British treasury.
When none was forthcoming, he took two drastic steps :
1.
He gave orders that the British navy must end smuggling in America.
2.
He introduced the Stamp Act.
Now the colonists had
a real grievance. They were being asked to pay taxes and yet they had no
representatives in Britain's parliament. The colonists stood up against all
tax levies by the British Parliament and shouted out a national slogan
"Taxation without representation is a tyranny."
The cry of "No taxation without representation" which they
immediately raised was the prelude to revolt.
The Course Of The War
1. First Phase (1775-1777)
On19th
April 1775, the
war began as a result of a skirmish at Lexington between British troops and volunteers
of Massachusetts.
After Lexington, the Massachusetts army attempted to seize Boston and
occupiedBunker's Hill, overlooking the town. With difficulty
and at heavy loss, the British soldiers expelled them. Later in the year the
colonists attacked Montreal and Quebec without success, for General Burgoyne arrived from England with
reinforcements.
George Washington was appointed commander of a
united colonial army by Congress. In 1776 he compelled the British troops to
evacuate Boston. They retired under General Howe by sea to Halifax.
Encouraged by their success the colonists issued the Declaration
of Independence on the fourth of July. Meanwhile Howe, having been reinforced
sailed to Long Island and captured New York. At New York he had command of the
sea. He transported his men by sea up the Chesapeake to strike at Philadelphia.
Landing he defeated Washington at Brandywine Creek and second Philadelphia.
The French Government, eager to avenge the loss of Canada,
realized that the revolt was likely to succeed and made an alliance with the
colonists in 1778.
2. Second Phase (1778-1783)
Soon after the victory at Saratoga France entered the Revolutionary
War in 1778 on the side of America. Spain entered into an alliance with France
and Holland too was fighting Britain. Thus the 13 states had allies. Heroes
likeLafayette from France,Von Steuben from Prussia andPulaski from Poland generously aidedGeneral George Washington.
The British navy had been neglected and was not able to blockade
the French fleets or to prevent French forces from sailing to America. The
British forces left Philadelphia and returned to New York. In 1779General Clinton, who had succeeded Howe as commander,
took an expedition to Georgia. Marching north, he captured Charleston. He
returned to New York, leaving General Cornwallis to complete the conquest of
the South.
In 1781 Cornwallis reached Yorktown peninsula and sent in
vain to New York for help. Washington marched south to attack him and, with the
aid of the French Navy, forced him to surrender.
The surrender atYorktown onOctober 191781 marked the end of the war in America,
though fighting dragged on in some areas for the next two years. Cornwallis'
defeat at Yorktown brought a new group of British ministers to power, early in
1782. They began peace talks with the Americans.
Continental
Congress: A body of delegates representing the colonies called
the Continental Congress met from time to time at Philadelphia and at last
issued here, not a Declaration of Rights, but aDeclaration of Independence onJuly 4th 1976.
Among the men who helped to frame this declaration wereBenjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson,
John Adams,Robert Livingstone,andRoger Sherman.
The ideas set forth is this Declaration of Independence were
democratic ideas, similar to those of the ancient Athenians. The British
government did not want to share their power with the colonists. However the
colonists fought against the British and after eight long years of war they
gained their independence.
The
committee that drew up the Declaration of Independence^ stands before the
President of the Congress, John Hancock
The siege of Yorktown was the last major battle of the
Revolutionary War. Britain began peace talks with the Americans several months
after her defeat at Yorktown.
Most infantrymen in the Revolutionary War wore long-tailed coats,
though in different colours. Generally colonists wore blue and the British red.
So British soldiers came to be known as "Redcoats".
The Treaty of Paris (1783): Peace
discussions between the Americans and the British opened in Paris in April
1782. Richard Oswald, a rich merchant, represented the British government whileBenjamin Franklin, John AdamsandJohn Jaynegotiated for
the United States.
On September
3 1783the peace treaty was signed. By the terms of theTreaty of Paris in 1783,Britain
recognized the independence of the United States and accepted the Mississippi
River as its western boundary. A new independent federal republic came into
being.
Causes
for the Success of the Colonists
1. The British
Government failed to send sufficient forces at the beginning of the war. The
War Minister, Lord George Germaine, and the commanders were not efficient.
2. After 1777
Britain was at war against France, Spain, and Holland, and overwhelmed with
difficulties in many parts of the world.
3. The loss of
sea-power in 1781 was decisive and caused the fall of Yorktown.
4. The colonists
had the advantage of the leadership of George Washington. Though not a great
soldier, he had a great force of character and will; he inspired his countrymen
with his conviction in the justice of their cause and with his confidence in
then- ultimate victory.
5. The British
were handicapped by the distance of America, by its vastness and difficulty of
communications.
England's Difficulties
1. Great Britain
had a hard time fighting many enemies who were allies of the American
Revolution.
2. A rebellion was
threatening in Ireland.
3. All Englishmen
did not favour the war. Even Parliament was divided in its opinion over waging
war with the colonies due to the liberal views of Edmund Burke, Charles James
Fox and William Pitt who were friendly to America. England had also lost her
supremacy of the high seas with the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.
Results of the War
1. The colonists,
having won their liberty, had to overcome their mutual jealousies and learn to
co-operate. It was not until 1789 that a constitution was agreed upon. They
chose a democratic Republic: to preserve the rights of the separate states, a
federal constitution was adopted.
2. The loyalists
were badly treated, and many of them migrated to Canada. They did not join the
French, but set up a new colony known as Upper Canada.
3. England's need
was Ireland's opportunity. English troops were withdrawn from Ireland to fight
in America. The Irish organized a Voluntary Army which later assisted the Irish
campaign for independence.
4. For a century
the British Parliament regarded colonies as an encumbrance rather than a
valuable privilege. A new empire arose, however, without the conscious effort
of Parliament. In 1788 Captain Phillips founded a penal settlement in New South
Wales: the great Dominion of Australia developed from this inauspicious
beginning. A new colonial system arose, under which Britain allowed liberty.
5. At Westminster,
a political crisis occurred that led to the establishment of the long supremacy
of William Pitt.
6. French
participation in the war was a major factor in bringing about the Revolution of
1789 in France.
Importance of the American Revolution
1. The United
States achieved political independence. The very fact that the colonists could
overturn an oppressive government within no time, sounded a clear warning to
all the other oppressive governments of the world.
2. France regained
two small colonies, Tobago in the West Indies and Senegal in West Africa. Spain
recovered Minorca and Florida. Holland gained nothing.
3. The Revolution
marked the birth of the U.S.A. which in course of time became the richest
country in the world and reached the status of a super-power.
4. The Americans
taught the world lessons in statesmanship and constitution making. They
established a republican constitution, which was conservative in the beginning
but fully democratic after some time.
The
American Constitution
The New Constitution,that is the Federal Constitution of 1787,
devised at Philadelphia, is still the Constitution of the United States. It has
been changed but little - in form in the direction of nationalism and
democracy.
The new American State was a republic instead of a monarchy; it
was a federation instead of a unitary state; and it was a democracy instead of
a dictatorship.
It is the world's first Democratic Republic.
Salient Features Of The Constitution
1. The elected president instead on hereditaryking (election are
held after every four years)
2. A written constitution
3.Separation of Church and State
4.A system of "separation of powers" and "checks
and balance"
5. A Federal Republic
Great
Patriots of American History
1. George
Washington
First President, Commander-in-Chief of the American armies during
the War of Independence, became his country's first president in 1789.
He was a Virginian plantation owner. He had taken part in the
Seven Years' War against France. He had been elected to the Virginian Assembly
and he had presided over the meeting which voted that Virginia should support
the colonists against the mother country.
The second Congress of Philadelphia in 1775, chose him as the
Commander- in Chief of the colonial forces.
2. Thomas
Jefferson
The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson,has
inspired other nations to seek their independence, too.
"We hold these truths to be self-evident that all Men are
created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness."
In his first draft he used the phrase "Life, Liberty and Property."
Jefferson based his ideas partly on his reading of the
philosophers Locke and Rousseau.
3.
Benjamin Franklin
Among the men who helped Jefferson draw up the Declaration of
Independence was Benjamin Franklin. Bom in Boston, he rose from poverty to
wealth by his own efforts. At the age of 42 he retired and devoted the
remaining 42 years of his life to public service. He created the American
Philosophical Society. He loved company and conversation and the comforts and
graces of life. He was rightly thought of as a citizen of the world. As
American Ambassador to Paris during the War of Independence, Franklin was
largely responsible for the alliance with France signed in 1778, which helped
to win the war.
4. Thomas Paine
He was a disconnected Norfolk farmer who had emigrate to the
colonies in 1774. In the Amjerican decision to resort to force, his writings
played a vital part . In 1776, hios puphlet Common sense was decisive in
turning American openion against George
III.
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